|
From Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications VOL. 5 NO. 1 Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews
By Katy Steele
Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications
2014, Vol. 5 No. 1 | pg. 2/4 | « »
The role of news media in the Arab-Israeli conflict is a recurring topic of research in the field of communications studies.32 However, the prevailing focus has been the portrayal of Arabs in Israeli newspapers. Avraham’s research on the coverage of Israeli-Arabs is perhaps the most noteworthy research done in this arena. He found that coverage of Arab-Israeli settlements is greatly influenced by a number of characteristics based on the settlement type, including size, and economic status, but most prominently, by socio-political proximity to centers of Jewish power.33 Another study found Israeli papers tended to frame Palestinian militants as “terrorists,” and Israeli occupation soldiers as “fighters.” The same study found that Israeli media used passive voice to describe the killing of Palestinians who were often left nameless.
This type of analysis, studying how media present news stories, focuses on the theory of media framing and is another important approach to studying the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. Entman defines framing as “the process of culling a few elements of perceived reality and assembling a narrative that highlights connections among them to promote a particular interpretation.”34 In other words, framing is a selective telling of partial truths, or evidences, to support a desired “reality” or cultural narrative.
Media frames rely on priming, which Entman defines as a process that influences a target audience to act, think and feel a particular way by raising the importance of certain ideas and lowering the importance of others, promoting conformity in public thought. Entman says that in noncoercive political systems, framing, or telling the public what to think about, is the most common way to push agenda. The Israeli government uses this tactic to push its agenda against Palestine: “The Israeli media did not function as a national, egalitarian voice of all the citizens of the country, but as a representational tool for the Jewish majority.”35
Some researchers argue that media framing is essential to help the audience contextualize and make sense of a substantial issue.36 However, media frames can become dangerous when used to advance a cultural narrative or promote groupthink that marginalizes a minority. After examining the news Hebrewspeaking audiences received regarding the Arab Awakening, one study found that Israeli media used frames that perpetuated Israeli superiority. The media frames used cast Israel as an island of civilization surrounded by Arab barbarians.37 Gordon found that in daily analyses of the uprisings the conflicts were not presented as popular pro-democracy struggles against authoritarian regimes, but as mere ethnic and religious disputes. Research by Herzog and Shamir analyzed how the Hebrew press presented Arab-Jewish relations between the years 1949 and 1986.38 Other research sought to investigate specifically how Israeli media frame Arabs as either friends or foes.39
Matt Evans analyzed the way that media framing influences the public’s perception of a foreign conflict and the creation of public policy. Different media frames, for example, caused the conflict in the former Yugoslavia to be seen as a “genocidal war of imperialism … and as a centuries old ethnic and religious dispute.”40 The former frame, “genocide,” incites international intervention, while the latter, “a lingering dispute,” condones inaction as it implies nothing can be done. Evans argues that the public often views news content as objective truth, which leads the public to understand events from a particular perspective, or frame, that the media chooses to advance.”41
Another study dealt with the way that the one’s ethnicity and identity influences perception of mass media.42 The research involved conducting interviews with Jewish and Arab American high school students to determine if their perception of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict was viewed through the lens of their own ethnicities, with a tendency to hold negative stereotypes about the opposing ethnic group. The study confirmed its hypothesis that individuals interpret events differently based on their corresponding social identity.43
The goal of this study is to assess the modern Palestinian perceptions of Israeli-Jews as they are portrayed through print newspaper editorials and analysis stories. The following research questions were asked:
- How do Palestinian-Arabs stereotype Israeli Jews?
- How do Palestinian media portray those stereotypes and use them to frame the Israeli-Palestinian conflict?
Because the purpose of this study was to take the pulse on the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, the researcher chose to analyze editorials, opinion pieces and analysis articles from three online Palestinian newspapers. The selected thirty articles were all written in English, as is common in research on transcultural news coverage. While the viewpoints are still telling of an overarching Palestinian/Arab perspective, these sources may have been written primarily for a non-Arab, or more cosmopolitan Arab audience. The study sought to first identify how modern Palestinian media portray the conflict, and specifically, with Israeli-Jews. The study tried to find whether three modern Palestinian media stereotypes Israeli-Jews in the same way as existing literature on these stereotypes suggests.
A sample of thirty articles were selected from three Palestinian news website: The Electronic Intifada, Ma’an News Agency, and The Palestinian News Chronicle. The following describes their backgrounds:
- The Electronic Intifada, an independent online news publication that was founded in 2001, is dedicated to “focusing on Palestine, its people, politics, culture and place in the world.”44 The site is funded by private organizations and readers, not by governments or political parties. The site is a cooperating news source, which partnered with the Palestine Media Watch, a website coalition founded in 2009 by Ahmed Bouzin, a Philadelphia software developer, with aims of addressing what Bouzin considered anti-Palestinian bias in mainstream journalism. The group is a significant player in the “competition to depict Israeli-Palestinian relations.”45 PM Watch monitors language use in news coverage, for example, encouraging news sources to refer to Israelis as “occupiers,” the “Israel Defense Forces,” as “Israeli Occupation Forces,” and the Israeli “security fence,” as an “Apartheid Wall,” to name just a few examples.46 Other cooperating new sources in PM Watch include Yale University’s Avalon Project, and the Palestinian Liberation Organization’s Negotiating Affairs Committee. To date, the two major factions of the PLO—Fatah and Hamas—have begun discussions of unifying the two political parties.47 Again, The Electronic Intifada clearly aims to promote the Palestinian national cause, but is private, not funded by political entities.
- The Ma’an News Agency (MNA), which was launched in 2005, publishes around-the-clock news in both Arabic and English. Based out of Bethlehem, it has more than 3 million visits a month, and is one of the most browsed websites in Palestinian territories. MNA is part of the Ma’an Network, a non-profit media organization founded in 2002 with aims to strengthen independent media in Palestine. It is the largest independent TV, radio, and online media group in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The site’s English counterpart “strives to convey a multi-dimensional picture of life in Palestine to a global audience, and to provide a forum for Palestinians to address the international community.”48 The site was launched with funding from the Danish and the Netherland Representative Offices to the Palestinian Authority. Denmark’s representative office in Ramallah, a Palestinian city in the West Bank, states that Danish objectives for Palestine include (1) Peace building; (2) State building; and, (3) Improved livelihood for Palestinian people.49
- The Palestinian Chronicle, a non-profit 501(c)3 organization, is an independent online newspaper founded in 1999. It provides daily news and commentary focusing on Palestine and the Middle East. Like The Electronic Intifada it is a cooperating news source with PM Watch. Its funding comes from readers and contributors. The organization describes itself as “a selfsustained project involving professionals and volunteers from around the world, all striving to highlight issues of relevance to human rights, national struggles, freedom and democracy.”50 The organization claims that its “team consists of professional journalists and respected writers and authors who don’t speak on behalf of any political party or champion any specific political agenda,”51 however, the paper has been criticized for being extremely anti-Semetic. The Palestinian Chronicle is edited by Ramzy Baroud (US), a prolific anti-Israel writer. Its editorial board is represented by some esteemed people, including Noam Chomsky, a professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who has called the paper “an invaluable source of information … trustworthy and reliable.”52
All three sources selected have a demonstrated intention to raise awareness of the Palestinian struggle and push the Palestinian national agenda. All of the sources generally seek to give a voice to Palestine in order to overcome what they consider Israeli-bias in mainstream media.
All selected articles were originally published between September 2013 and November 10, 2013.
This time period is of interest not only for its immediate relevancy, but also because of the U.S.- led peace talks between Israel and Palestine that were initiated around this time. Three primary factors were taken into consideration when selecting articles: (1) the article fell into the opinions, editorial, or analysis section on the organization’s website; (2) the article was published between September 1, 2013 and November 10, 2013; (3) the article content was pertinent to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
This study analyzed how editorial, opinion and analysis articles from Palestinian media describe Israeli-Jews in relation to common stereotypes. The analysis also dealt with how the articles relate Israeli- Jews to the conflict at large and the on-going peace negotiations. After studying existing literature about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the researcher identified six theme categories or topics, which were further divided into eighteen relevant frames, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Topics and Frames Relevant to Discussion on Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
| Land Rights |
Violence |
Values |
Palestinian Unity |
Finger pointing |
Miscellaneous |
| Aliens (immigrants, trespassers) Apartheid Dominance (powerhungry, greedy) Occupiers/Colonizers Zionists |
Aggression (exaggerated intention, destruction) Human rights abuses Inhumane Military violence |
Religious undertones Western puppets |
Rally for Palestinian solidarity Romanticizing Palestine |
Blame for peace failure Poor Israeli leadership |
Admiration / Envy Anti-Semitism True victim |
Continued on Next Page »
Anderson, B. Imagined Communities. London: Verso, 1991.
Azoulay, Ariella. Aliniut mekhonenet 1947-1950: Geneologiyah hazulit shelmishtar ve-kafikhat ha-ason le-”ason mi-nekudat mabatam.” Tel Aviv, 2009.
Avraham, E. Media and Social Construction of Reality: The Coverage of Settlements in Marginal Areas in National Newspapers. Thesis accepted for the Doctor of Philosophy degree. Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1998.
Butler, B. “‘Othering’ the archive - from exile to inclusion and heritage dignity: The case of Palestinian archival memory. Archival Science 9, no. 1-2. (2009): 57-69.
“Can Muslims Accept Israel in Their Midst?.” American Foreign Policy Interests 33, no. 4 (July 2011): 178-184.
Caruth, C. “Arrested histories: A response to Francoise Davoine.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 17, 639–646.
Cohen, Adoni, Bantz. Social Conflicts and Television News; A.A. Cohen, G. Wolfsfeld. Framing Intifada: People and Media. Norwood, NJ, 1993; Liebes. Reporting the Arab-Iraeli Conflict; Wolfsfeld. Media and Political Conflict.
“Danida,” Representative Office of Denmark in Ramallah. http://ramallah.um.dk/en/danida-en/ (accessed December 18, 2013).
Daraghmeh, Mohammed. “Effects of the Conflict on the Palestinian Media.” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10, no. 2 (June 2003): 13.
Dor, Daniel. “All the News that Fits: The Israeli Media and the Second Intifada.” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10, no. 2 (June 2003): 27.
Entman, Robert M. “Framing Bias: Media in the Distribution of Power.” Journal Of Communication 57, no. 1 (March 2007): 163-173.
Entman, Robert M. and David L. Paletz. Media Power Politics. New York: Free Press, 1981.
Evans, Matt. “Framing International Conflicts: Media coverage of fighting in the Middle East.” International Journal Of Media & Cultural Politics 6, no. 2 (September 2010): 209-233.
First, Anat. “Are They Still the Enemy? The Representation of Arabs in Israeli Television News.” In Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the ‘Other.’ edited by Tudor Parfitt with Yulia Egorova. Routledgecurzon Jewish Studies Series of University of Kentucky, edited by Oliver Leaman (New York: Routledge-Curzon, 2004), 192.
Gordon, Neve. “A Villa in the Jungle: The Arab Awakening through the Lens of the Israeli Media.” Middle East Law & Governance 3, no. 1/2 (February 2011): 105-117.
Hall, S. “The Spectacle of the ‘Other’” in S. Hall, ed., Representation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices. London, 1997.
Herzog, Shamir. ‘Negotiated Society? Media Discourse on Israeli Jewish/Arab Relations.’ Israel Social Science Review 9, no. 18, 1994.
Iyengar, Shanto. “Television News and Citizens’ Explanations of National Issues.” American Political Science Review. 1987.
Jeremy Ginges, et al. “Foreign Wars and Domestic Prejudice: How Media Exposure to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Predicts Ethnic Stereotyping by Jewish and Arab American Adolescents.” Journal Of Research On Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell) 22, no. 3 (September 2012): 556-570.
Kosicki, Gerald and Zhongdang Pan. “Framing Analysis: An Approach to News Discourse.” Political Communication 10, (1993): 55-75.
Landes, Richard. “Edward Said and the Culture of Honour and Shame: Orientalism and Our Misperceptions of the Arab-Israeli Conflict.” Israel Affairs 13, no. 4 (October 2007): 844-858.
Lindholm-Schulz, H. The Palestinian diaspora: formation of identities and politics of homeland. London: Routledge, 2003.
Qeimari, Ala. “Israeli Media: Serving the “Patriotic” Cause.” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10, no. 2 (June 2003): 23.
Ronen, Gil. “Report: Hamas and Fatah ‘Agree on Unity,’ Israel National News, http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/175248#.UrIF2TnA5Hy (accessed on December 17, 2013).
Seidel, Timothy. “Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel.” Cross Currents 62, no. 4 (December 2012): 424-441.
Shipler, David K. Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land. New York: Penguin Group, 2002.
Sloan, WM. David, and Lisa Mullikan Parcell. Media Bias: Finding It, Fixing It. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002.
Suchet, Melanie. “Face to Face.” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 20, no. 2 (March 2010): 158-171.
Tuchman, Gaye. Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality. New York: Free Press, 1978.
Appendix: List of News Accounts
Al Ghussain, Alia. “Israeli occupation leaves psychological not just physical scars.” The Electronic Intifada. September 11, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israeli-occupation-leaves-psychological-notjust- physical-scars/12759 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Al-Shabaka. “Analysis: Can Oslo’s failed aid model be laid to rest?” Ma’an News Agency. November 2, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=643596 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Alsaafin, Linah. “Resist Israel’s unjust system, don’t operate within it.” The Electronic Intifada.” September 7, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/resist-israels-unjust-system-dont-operate-within-it/12751 (accessed November 10, 2013).
Baroud, Ramzy. “Ramallah, Gaza and the Palestinian identity crisis.” Ma’an News Agency. September 14, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=629688 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Collins, Dylan. “Six-year-old loses eye from bullets Israel promised to phase out.” The Electronic Intifada. October 7, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/six-year-old-loses-eye-bullets-israel-promisedphase-out/12830 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathon. “Even the World Bank Understands: Palestine is Being Disappeared.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 17, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/even-the-world-bank-understandspalestine-is-being-disappeared/#.UoOo8znA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathan. “Talking Nonsense about Apartheid: How Come Uri Avnery Knows So Little about Israel?” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 28, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/talking-nonsenseabout-apartheid-how-come-uri-avnery-knows-so-little-about-israel/#.Un5rBTnA5Hw (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cook, Jonathan. “Whatever Happened to Peace Talks? Israel Gets Building While Negotiations Go Nowhere.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 31, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/whatever-happenedto-peace-talks-israel-gets-building-while-negotiations-go-nowhere/#.UoOnYjnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Cotto, Joseph. “Israel and the Dangers of Ethnic Nationalism: An Interview with Jonathan Cook.” The Palestinian Chronicle. November 7, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/israel-and-the-dangers-ofethnic-nationalism-an-interview-with-jonathan-cook/#.UoOm_jnA5Hx (accessed November 13).
Forer, Richard. “A Jewish journey towards compassion in Israel-Palestine.” Ma’an News Agency. October 8, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=636825 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Gordon, Neve. “High Court Rules: It is Impossible to Be Israeli.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 21, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/high-court-rules-it-is-impossible-to-be-israeli/#.UoOouTnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Hassan, Youssef Budour. “Israel’s killing of five young Palestinians exposes ‘peace’ talks as charade.” The Electronic Intifada. September 24, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israels-killing-five-youngpalestinians-exposes-peace-talks-charade/12797 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Hassan, Youssef Budour. “The second intifada put holes in Israel’s wall of fear.” The Electronic Intifada. October 4, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/second-intifada-put-holes-israels-wall-fear/12826 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kassis, Rifat Odeh. “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children.” Ma’an News Agency. October 29, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=642347 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Khalilieh, Suhail. “20 years of Oslo: Maybe the best thing to happen to Palestinians.” Ma’an News Agency. September 18, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=631016 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kuttab, Daoud. “Netanyahu attacks Iran rather than face the Palestinian issue.” Ma’an News Agency. October 3, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=635574 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Kuttab, Daoud. “Jerusalem elections boycott sends ‘strong’ statement to Israel.” Ma’an News Agency. October 25, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=641102 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Lahham, Nasser. “Editorial: Oslo is dead, long live Palestine.” Ma’an News Agency. September 14, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=629718 (accessed November 13).
Louis, Zarah. “Containment of Holocaust Education: Lessons Unlearned.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 25, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/containment-of-holocaust-education-lessons-unlearned/#. UoOoTznA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Nadim, Nashef. “Palestinian youth assert right of return with direct action.” The Electronic Intifada. September 11, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/israeli-occupation-leaves-psychological-not-just-physical-scars/12759 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Nasser, Nicola. “Drying up Ideological Wellsprings of Arab-Israeli Conflict.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 30, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/drying-up-ideological-wellsprings-of-arab-israeli-conflict/#. UoOnyznA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Qumsiyeh, Mazin. “Palestinians do have options for change and resistance.” Ma’an News Agency. October 6, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=636397 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Pappe, Iian. “Reclaiming Judaism from Zionism.” The Electronic Intifada. October 18, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/reclaiming-judaism-zionism/12859 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Persson, Anders. “New EU settlements guidelines already biting.” Ma’an News Agency. September 10, 2013. http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=637350 (accessed November 13).
Sheen, David. “Video: Israeli crowd cheers as Africans called ‘slaves.’” The Electronic Intifada. October 8, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/video-israeli-crowd-cheers-africans-called-slaves/12833 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Strickland, Patrick O. “We’ll never forget October 1956 massacre, say Palestinians in Israel.” The Electronic Intifada. October 29, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/well-never-forget-october-1956-massacre-say-palestinians-israel/12883 (accessed November 13).
Strickland, Patrick O. “Palestinian lawyer faces Israeli jail for ‘organizing demonstrations.’” The Electronic Intifada. October 31, 2013. http://electronicintifada.net/content/palestinian-lawyer-faces-israeli-jailorganizing-demonstrations/12886 (accessed November 13, 2013).
Vlazna, Vacy. “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 4, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/the-gatekeepers-locking-in-palestinians-as-terrorists/#. UoOpdDnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Vlazna, Vacy. “Israelis Turning Blood into Money: The Lab Review.” The Palestinian Chronicle. October 16, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/israelis-turning-blood-into-money-the-lab-review/#.UoOpNDnA5Hx (accessed November 13, 2013).
Whitbeck, John V. “Palestine: Give Democracy A Chance.” The Palestinian Chronicle. September 24, 2013. http://www.palestinechronicle.com/palestine-give-democracy-a-chance/#.UoOp8jnA5Hx
Endnotes
- David Shipler, Arab and Jew: Wounded Spirits in a Promised Land (London: Times Books, 1986), 166.
- Ibid., 165-166.
- Ibid., 184.
- Ibid., 186.
- Ibid., 187.
- Mohammed Daraghmeh, “Effects of the Conflict on the Palestinian Media,” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10.2 (June 2003).
- Timothy Siedel, “Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel Development, Religion, and Modernity in Palestine-Israel,” Cross Currents 62.4 (December 2012): 424-441.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 232.
- Ibid., 233.
- Ibid., 231.
- "Can Muslims Accept Israel in Their Midst?" American Foreign Policy Interests 33.4 (July 2011): 178-184.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 165-231.
- Ala Qeimari, “Israeli Media: Serving the ‘Patriotic’ Cause,” Palestine-Israel Journal Of Politics, Economics & Culture 10.2 (June 2003): 23.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 228.
- Ibid., 170.
- Anat First, “Are They Still the Enemy? The Representation of Arabs in Israeli Television News,” in Jews, Muslims and Mass Media: Mediating the ‘Other,’ ed. Tudor Parfitt with Yulia Egorova, (New York, 2004), 190..
- B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London: Verso, 1991).
- First, Are They Still the Enemy?, 190.
- Stuart Hall, “The Spectacle of the ‘Other,’” in Representation: Cultural Representation and Signifying Practices, ed. Stuart Hall (London: Sage Publications, 1994), 267.
- Ibid.
- Melanie Suchet, “Face to Face,” Psychoanalytic Dialogues 20.2 (March 2010): 158-171.
- Richard Landes, “Edward Said and the Culture of Honour and Shame: Orientalism and Our Misperceptions of the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Israel Affairs 13.4 (October 2007): 844-858.
- Ibid.
- Suchet, “Face to Face,” 164.
- Ibid., 165.
- Ibid., 164.
- H. Lindholm-Schulz, The Palestinian diaspora: formation of identities and politics of homeland (London:Routledge, 2003).
- Beverley Butler,”’Othering’ the archive - from exile to inclusion and heritage dignity: the case of Palestinian archival memory,” Archival Science 9.1 (2009), p. 64.
- Ibid., 60.
- Ibid., 61.
- Ariella Azoulay, Aliniut mekhonenet 1947-1950: Geneologiyah hazulit shelmishtar ve-kafikhat ha-ason le- ”ason mi-nekudat mabatam” (Tel Aviv, 2009).
- Cohen, Adoni, Bantz, Social Conflicts and Television News; A.A. Cohen, G. Wolfsfeld, Framing Intifada: People and Media, Norwood, NJ, 1993; Liebes, Reporting the Arab-Iraeli Conflict; Wolfsfeld, Media and Political Conflict.
- E. Avraham, Media and Social Construction of Reality: The Coverage of Settlements in Marginal Areas in National Newspapers, Thesis accepted for the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Jerusalem: Hebrew University, 1998).
- Robert M. Entman, “Framing Bias: Media in the Distribution of Power.” Journal Of Communication 57.1 (March 2007): 163-173.
- First, “Are They Still the Enemy?,” 209.
- Gaye Tuchman, Making News: A Study in the Construction of Reality (New York: Free Press, 1978), 193.
- Neve Gordon, “A Villa in the Jungle: The Arab Awakening through the Lens of the Israeli Media,” Middle East Law & Governance (February 2011): 105-117.
- Shamir Herzog, ‘Negotiated Society? Media Discourse on Israeli Jewish/Arab Relations’ Israel Social Science Review, 9.18 (1994) 55-88.
- First, “Are They Still the Enemy?” 195.
- Matt Evans, “Framing International Conflicts: Media coverage of fighting in the Middle East,” International Journal Of Media & Cultural Politics 6.2 (September 2010): 209-233.
- Ibid.
- Jeremy Ginges, et al. “Foreign Wars and Domestic Prejudice: How Media Exposure to the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Predicts Ethnic Stereotyping by Jewish and Arab American Adolescents,” Journal Of Research On Adolescence (Wiley-Blackwell) 22.3 (September 2012): 556-570.
- Ibid., 560.
- “About Electronic Intifada,” Electronic Intifada About Page, http://electronicintifada.net/about-ei (November 7, 2013).
- WM. David Sloan, and Lisa Mullikan Parcell, Media Bias: Finding It, Fixing It, (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2002), 14.
- Ibid.
- Gil Ronen, “Report: Hamas and Fatah ‘Agree on Unity,’ Israel National News, http://www.israelnationalnews. com/News/News.aspx/175248#.UrIF2TnA5Hy (December 17, 2013).
- “About Us Ma’an News Agency,” Ma’an News Agency About Us Page. http://www.maannews.net/eng/View-Content.aspx?PAGE=AboutUs (November 7, 2013).
- “Danida,” Ministry of Foreign Affairs Denmark, http://ramallah.um.dk/en/danida-en/ (December 18, 2013).
- “About Palestinian Chronicle,” The Palestinian Chronicle About Page, http://www.palestinechronicle.com/about/ (November 7, 2013).
- Ibid.
- Ibid.
- Siedel, “Development, Religion, and Modernity,” 424-441.
- Jonathan Cook, “Whatever Happened to Peace Talks? Israel Gets Building While Negotiations Go Nowhere,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 31, 2013.
- Rifat Odeh Kassis, “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children,” Ma’an News Agency, October 29, 2013.
- Joseph Cotto,“Israel and the Dangers of Ethnic Nationalism: An Interview with Jonathan Cook,” The Palestinian Chronicle, November 7, 2013.
- Alia Al Ghussain, “Israeli occupation leaves psychological not just physical scars,” The Electronic Intifada, September 11, 2013.
- Jonathan Cook, “Talking Nonsense about Apartheid: How Come Uri Avnery Knows So Little about Israel?” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 28, 2013.
- Vacy Vlazna, “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 4, 2013.
- Nicola Nasser, “Drying up Ideological Wellsprings of Arab-Israeli Conflict,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 30, 2013.
- Vacy Vlazna, “Israelis Turning Blood into Money: The Lab Review,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 16, 2013.
- Iian Pappe, “Reclaiming Judaism from Zionism,” The Electronic Intifada, October 18, 2013.
- Dylan Collins, “Six-year-old loses eye from bullets Israel promised to phase out,” The Electronic Intifada, October 7, 2013.
- S. Hall, ‘The Spectacle of the “Other”’ in S. Hall, ed., Representation, p. 257
- Rifat Odeh Kassis, “Equal laws, discriminatory practice: the plight of Jerusalem children,” Ma’an News Agency, October 29, 2013.
- Ramzy Baroud, “Ramallah, Gaza and the Palestinian identity crisis,” Ma’an News Agency, September 14, 2013.
- Al-Shabaka, “Analysis: Can Oslo’s failed aid model be laid to rest?” Ma’an News Agency, November 2, 2013.
- Shipler, Arab and Jew, 166.
- David Sheen, “Video: Israeli crowd cheers as Africans called ‘slaves,’” The Electronic Intifada, October 8, 2013.
- Alia Al Ghussain, “Israeli occupation leaves psychological not just physical scars,” The Electronic Intifada, September 11, 2013.
- Vacy Vlazna, “The Gatekeepers: Locking in Palestinians as Terrorists,” The Palestinian Chronicle, October 4, 2013.
Save Citation » (Works with EndNote, ProCite, & Reference Manager)
APA 6th
Steele, K. (2014). "Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications, 5(1). Retrieved from http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
MLA
Steele, Katy. "Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews." Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 5.1 (2014). <http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972>
Chicago 16th
Steele, Katy. 2014. Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications 5 (1), http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
Harvard
STEELE, K. 2014. Palestinian-Arab Media Frames and Stereotypes of Israeli-Jews. Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in Communications [Online], 5. Available: http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/a?id=972
Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal
The level of displacement surrounding the Israel-Palestinian conflict is astounding. At this point there are over nine million Palestinian refugees scattered throughout the globe (King-Irani 924,). Arguing that their situation is dehumanizing and infringes upon their human rights, Palestinians have consistently demanded the right of return as a prerequisite for peace negotiations (Tovy 40... MORE»
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a perplexing problem that weighs heavily on the world. For over seventy-five years, blood has been spilt over a piece of land about the size of New Jersey. Numerous attempts have been made to find peace in what is referred to as the Holy Land. Unfortunately, each plan has failed miserably. What is needed now is a fresh examination of the circumstances. Divergent ideas need to be brought to the table for examination... MORE»
Rimaz Kasabreh is Palestinian. Because of her Israeli-issued green identification card, she is considered a legal resident of the West Bank but an illegal immigration within nearby East Jerusalem – the historically Palestinian-controlled half of Jerusalem until its annexation from Jordan following the Six Day War in 1967.... MORE»
This ongoing dispute clearly concerns the United States, the long-term third party in peace negotiations, and a close ally of Israel. However, now more than ever European and Middle Eastern states are invested in the resolution of this conflict. The stability of Israel and the humanitarian status of the Palestinians depend upon... MORE»
Latest in Business & Communications
2021, Vol. 13 No. 09
This research lies at the nexus of political communication theory relating to emotional affect and political processing and the burgeoning field of sentiment analysis. News coverage can affect opinion both through the information it provides and... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 06
This research study explores factors that present barriers to reporting workplace incidents and contribute to cultures of non-report. The research purpose was to explore human, workplace/organizational, and external factors identified by industrial... Read Article »
2016, Vol. 8 No. 11
In its beta release, Google Glass was positioned as a groundbreaking technology - a glimpse into a future that has long been promised in science fiction. It was met with media fanfare and consumer interest, despite costing more than most PCs on... Read Article »
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Predicting the future of the news industry begins with understanding the history of newspapers and the current news delivery landscape. Because the Internet has brought fundamental shifts to news distribution, successful organizations of the future... Read Article »
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Instagram allows users to share a snapshot of their lives with a mass audience in a matter of seconds. This capability and power has not gone unnoticed by celebrities, who are highly aware of the impact their social media accounts have on fans and... Read Article »
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Since its development, YouTube, the world's third most popular online destination, has transformed from a video-sharing site into a job opportunity for content creators in both new and mainstream media. Based on content analysis, the study examined... Read Article »
2016, Vol. 7 No. 1
Today, more than 15 million Americans practice yoga, making the ancient Indian discipline synonymous with the Western society's culture of wellness. As a way to market themselves, practitioners and instructors of yoga have utilized Instagram &ndash... Read Article »
|
