States' Interests and Migrant Rights: A Legal Dilemma?

By Stephanie Fitzgerald
Interstate - Journal of International Affairs
2012, Vol. 2011/2012 No. 2 | pg. 3/3 |

Cooperation Regarding Migration

Despite the above illustrations of a lack of cooperation amongst States, there are many examples of a genuine intention to cooperate in matters of migration. An example of this can be seen with the thousands of recognised refugees who fled from Bhutan to Nepal in the 1990s, who were then resettled in eight different countries.196

A further example would be the Spanish trawler that rescued 51 migrants in distress at Sea between the Maltese and Libyan search and rescue zones. A burden sharing agreement developed allowing the disembarkation in a few States, but the resettlement of the rescued in several other countries.197 There are also the developments of arrangements between the States of origin, transit and destination, which use cooperation tactics to inform citizens of the illegalities of migrant smuggling and offering other forms of coming forward as refugees, as seen in the Vietnam and Laos Comprehensive Plan of Action to protect refugees’ rights, whilst discouraging irregular migration.198

Recent activities also show hope for international cooperation with the thousands of people fleeing Libya this year, a State that has for many years ‘been a transit and destination country for thousands of refugees and people otherwise in need of international protection from third countries’.199 Many are now leaving Libya and seeking refuge in States such as, ‘Egypt and Tunisia, but there are also departures by land, air and increasingly by sea to other countries’.200 Libya is a place of violence, where excessive force is being used towards its civilians, ‘specifically targeted towards the large groups of foreigners in the country, including refugees and asylum-seekers’.201 The UN has expressed its gratitude towards countries like Egypt who have pledged “to allow entry to Libyan nationals”. This shows that States, regardless of the lack of legal obligation to share the burden of refugee protection, are looking at their duty as a member in the international community to assist its neighbour when an international crisis arises. A further example of burden sharing tactics can be seen in the Kosovo conflict, where various States helped Macedonia, offering, ‘economic assistance and a programme to share refugees’, the US initially suggesting a figure around 20,000.202 The support offered suggests that the idea of burden sharing is very much present in the international arena for refugee protection.

Conclusion

The various causes of migration have had a damaging effect on the principle of cooperation amongst the international community, with regards to the protection given to asylum seekers and refugees. With State internal conflicts and human rights abuse, many people flee their country of origin in search for protection. This protection, which has been guaranteed by international instruments, is being jeopardised by State interpretation of the concept of burden sharing within the cooperative arena. Many geographically disadvantaged States suffer with mass inflows of migration and refugees have to remain with the first State where asylum was claimed, usually the suffering States. This has caused many debates among States, as those who suffer are struggling with security, social and economic problems. The States who suffer to a great extent in respect of refugee inflows, have appealed to neighbouring States to take their fair share in the burden of migration. Neighbouring States have great reservations over the issue, especially with regards to their own security matters. This has become a more prominent refusal ground, due to recent terrorist attacks and the fear for safety of nationals. It thus becomes a question of sovereignty over border control and security systems or assistance to fellow States.

There are three recognisable ways to share the burden: financial contribution to those in need, the redistribution of migrants amongst States, and a final proposal is the creation of a common asylum policy. The financial aid given to States with regards to emergency immigration flows takes the form of Refugee Funds, contributed to by the international community. When concerning the distribution of migrants as a solution there has been great reluctance to contribute. Many States have turned this idea of sharing the burden into a shifting exercise which expels them of duty. Although in certain cases the shifting of the asylum burden is a method of sharing the burden, States have taken the idea too far, jeopardising asylum seekers rights. The persistence of States to rid themselves of duty towards asylum seekers can be seen in their agreements with States, who are not obliged to abide by various fundamental legal conventions regarding refugee rights, as well as basic human rights.

The international community, however, does seem to recognise that at times of emergency neighbouring States need to assist those suffering with the burden of migration. Although only when the suffering State refuses to accept any more refugees, will the other States share the burden of the mass influx, putting the refugees’ rights at risk. The States suffering a constant inflow of refugees, due to their geographical position, are calling this inequitable burden an emergency. However, with regards to the above, that State would have to refuse protection to the refugees before the international community would help relieve the burden.

Burden sharing is only present in the preamble of the Refugee Convention, having no legally binding effect, yet its presence within other international instruments suggests it is an accepted practice within international law. Regardless of its legal nature, the fact that it is part of international practice for refugee emergencies suggests that it has in fact become a general practice of States. If this is the case then burden sharing may well become part of customary international law. However, if not legally binding then there may be a moral obligation to assist.

The conflicts the asylum seekers are fleeing from are usually within States where intervention has taken place by westernised countries, who have contributed in some way towards the conflict. Where such situations occur, it is felt there is a moral duty to ensure protection for those refugees by the States involved. However, a moral duty also arises when States require international assistance, due to the code laid down by the UN Charter, conferring on states an obligation to cooperate with each other. If there is no moral or legal duty, the concept of burden sharing should still be the solution to the emergency that is migration. This can further be achieved by the creation of an annual quota of refugees States are willing to accept; as well as a common asylum policy.

A definite figure stating the amount of refugees a country would be willing to accept annually would hopefully help alleviate the migration burden on States who are finding it difficult to respond to the needs of the migrants. For the international obligation of cooperation to take full effect there must be a fair share of refugees distributed among each of the States. The second proposal is that the international community needs to come together to create a convention including protection for refugees as well as asylum seekers, as States, although grant refugee protection to already established refugees, they seem reluctant to process asylum claims. Such a law would clarify the extent of burden sharing and the extent of the international communities’ obligations.

The practice of burden sharing is cooperation to the fullest extent. To ensure all States have an equal share in the burden of granting refuge, whilst maintaining asylum seekers rights, would mean the international community has understood the essence of international cooperation. Although not obligatory, burden sharing is a persistent principle carrying with it a fair duty for every State, which in the future may well become customary in nature, if not conventionally binding.


Endnotes

  1. UN General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  2. UN General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, Article 33. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  3. Piotrowicz, R. and Redpath-Cross, J. ‘Human Trafficking and Smuggling’, in Foundations of International Migration Law, edited by Brian Opeskin, Richard Perruchoud and Jillyanne Redpath-Cross (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012), here p. 11.
  4. Obokata, T. ‘Smuggling of Human Beings from a Human Rights perspective: Obligations of non-State and State Actors under International Human Rights Law’. International Journal of Refugee Law, 17:2 (2005), pp. 394-415, here p. 399.
  5. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 44.
  6. International Organization for Migration, Types of Irregular Migration. Available at: http://www.iom.int/jahia/Jahia/about-migration/ managing-migration/managing-migration-irregular-migration/types-of-irregular-migration (Accessed 7 August 2012). See section on important points.
  7. In the 1980s around 64 million were affected by such disasters, compared with 28 million in the 1960s. See Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), pp. 47-8.
  8. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 47-8.
  9. BBC News, The Chernobyl Disaster, section on Environment, para. 2. Available at: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/2012).
  10. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 50.
  11. Globalization 101, Pull Factors, para. 4. Available at: http://www. globalization101.org/pull-factors/ (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  12. For example in the UK, The Immigration (Employment of Adults subject to Immigration Control) (Maximum Penalty) Order 2008 (S.I. 2008/132) the maximum penalty is £10,000. See: http://www. ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/sitecontent/documents/employersandsponsors/preventingillegalworking/currentguidanceandcodes/comprehensiveguidancefeb08.pdf?view=Binary (Accessed 10 November 2011), p. 4.
  13. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 62.
  14. As seen in the smuggled children from China into Hong Kong to meet their parents in 1997. See Migration News, ‘Hong Kong Reverts to China’, Migration News, 4:7 (1997), para 3. Available at: http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1269_0_3_0 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  15. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 35.
  16. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 157. (An observation made by an interdepartmental study group set up by the Swedish Ministry of Labour in 1990. Swedish Ministry of Labour, ‘A comprehensive refugee and immigration policy’ (Stockholm, Swedish Ministry of Labour, 1990), p. 6.).
  17. Brolan, C. ‘An Analysis of the Human Smuggling Trade and the Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Air and Sea (2000) from a Refugee Protection Perspective’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 14:4 (2002), p. 561; see also Samura, S. Exodus from Africa (documentary), CNN, 12 August 2011.
  18. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 146.
  19. Ghosh, B. Refugees & Human Rights: Huddled Masses and Uncertain Shores: Insights into Irregular migration (Leiden, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998), p. 147.
  20. Schloenhardt, A. ‘Migrant Smuggling in the Asia Pacific: Balancing Regional Security and Human Rights’, Charles Darwin Symposium, ‘Eye of the Storm’, Darwin, 29-30 September 2003, General Objectives.
  21. Betts, A. ‘Towards a ‘SoftLaw’ Framework for the Protection of Vulnerable Irregular Migrants’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 22:2 (2010), p. 209.
  22. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, What is a Refugee?, para. 1. Available at: http://www.unrefugees.org/site/c. lfIQKSOwFqG/b.4950731/k.A894/What_is_a_refugee.htm (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  23. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational Organized Crime Threat Assessment, 2010. Available at: http://www.unodc. org/documents/data-and analysis/tocta/TOCTA_Report_2010_ low_res.pdf (Accessed 10 November 2011).
  24. Transnational Organised Crime, Smuggling of migrants – the harsh search for a better life. Available at: http://www.unodc.org/toc/ en/crimes/migrant-smuggling.html (Accessed 9 August 2012). See section on quick facts.
  25. Kyle, D. and Koslowski, R. Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives, (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 262. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/470c9be92.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012). It has been reported that an increasing proportion of Iraqis fleeing the current crisis and seeking asylum in Sweden have been smuggled there.
  26. Migration Information Source, Migration Fundamentals. Available at: http://www.migrationinformation.org/archive. cfm?Cat=fundamentals (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  27. Kyle, D. and Koslowski, R. Global Human Smuggling: Comparative Perspectives, (Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), p. 262; and Widgren, J. ‘Multilateral Co-operation to Combat Trafficking in Migrants and the Role of International Organizations’, discussion paper presented to the IOM Seminar ‘International Responses to Trafficking in Migrants and the Safeguarding of Migrant Rights’, Geneva, 1994.
  28. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Global Trends 2010’ (Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2011), p. 5. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/4dfa11499.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  29. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Global Trends 2010’ (Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2011), p. 5. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/4dfa11499.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  30. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Global Trends 2010’ (Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2011), p. 12. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/4dfa11499.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  31. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Global Trends 2010’ (Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2011), p. 12. Available at http://www.unhcr.org/4dfa11499.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  32. United Nations, ‘Charter of the United Nations’, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3ae6b3930.html (Accessed 12 November 2011) The Preamble states: ‘to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security’; Article 1 states: ‘To achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character…’
  33. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 3. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  34. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, Introduction. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4e533bc02.html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  35. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 1. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  36. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 5. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  37. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 4. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  38. Milner, J. ‘Sharing the Security Burden: Towards the Convergence of Refugee Protection and State Security’, RSC Working Paper No. 4 (2000), p. 1.
  39. Milner, J. ‘Sharing the Security Burden: Towards the Convergence of Refugee Protection and State Security’, RSC Working Paper No. 4 (2000), p. 1.
  40. Milner, J. ‘Sharing the Security Burden: Towards the Convergence of Refugee Protection and State Security’, RSC Working Paper No. 4 (2000), p. 2.
  41. Milner, J. ‘Sharing the Security Burden: Towards the Convergence of Refugee Protection and State Security’, RSC Working Paper No. 4 (2000), p. 2.
  42. Hogwood, P. ‘The Impact of 9/11 on European Immigration Policy’. Westminster’s International Relations (online), 6 October 2011. Available at: http://westminsters-international-relations.blogspot. co.uk/2011/10/impact-of-911-on-european-immigration.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  43. Hampshire, J. and Saggar, S. ‘Migration, Integration, and Security in the UK Since July 7’. Migration Information Source (online), March 2006. Available at: http://migrationinformation.org/Feature/ display.cfm?ID=383 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  44. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Article 33. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  45. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 4. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  46. For example the Dublin Agreement, which allows for the shifting, rather than sharing, of the migration burden. See Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national.
  47. ‘Recipient countries concluded bilateral agreements with refugee producing or transit states, creating a buffer zone around their territory to which arrivals could be returned and allowing the recipient states to ‘contain’ asylum seeking’. See Uçarer, E. M. ‘Burden-Shirking, Burden-Shifting, and Burden-Sharing in the Emergent European Asylum Regime by International Politics’, International Politics, 43 (2006), pp. 219-240. Available at: http://www.palgrave-journals. com/ip/journal/v43/n2/full/8800141a.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  48. Piotrowicz, R. and Redpath-Cross, J. ‘Human Trafficking and Smuggling’, in Foundations of International Migration Law, edited by Brian Opeskin, Richard Perruchoud and Jillyanne Redpath-Cross (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012 not yet published), p. 11.
  49. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Human Trafficking. Available at: http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/human-trafficking/ what-is-human-trafficking.html?ref=menuside (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  50. Terrorists hijack four planes, flying three into the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon. The fourth crashes in a field, nearly 3,000 die. Guardian, September 11 2001. Available at: http://www.guardian. co.uk/world/september11 (Accessed 7 August 2012); and www. securitytransformation.org/images/publicaciones/152 GCST Policy Brief 8 – Get There Anyway You Can – Human Smuggling to The U.S. And The Policy Implications.pdf.
  51. Article 2 United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3ae6b3930.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  52. Schloenhardt, A. ‘Migrant Smuggling in the Asia Pacific: Balancing Regional Security and Human Rights’, Charles Darwin Symposium, ‘Eye of the Storm’, Darwin, 29-30 September 2003, General Objectives, Introduction.
  53. Schloenhardt, A. ‘Migrant Smuggling in the Asia Pacific: Balancing Regional Security and Human Rights’, Charles Darwin Symposium, ‘Eye of the Storm’, Darwin, 29-30 September 2003, General Objectives, p. 12.
  54. Schloenhardt, A. ‘Migrant Smuggling in the Asia Pacific: Balancing Regional Security and Human Rights’, Charles Darwin Symposium, ‘Eye of the Storm’, Darwin, 29-30 September 2003, General Objectives, p. 12.
  55. Goodwin-Gill, G. S. ‘The Right to Seek Asylum: Interception at Sea and the Principle of Non-Refoulement’, International Journal of Refugee Law, 23:3 (2011), p. 444.
  56. International Organisation for Migration, The Criminalization of Migrant Smuggling, para. 2. Available at: http://www.iom.int/jahia/ Jahia/about-migration/managing-migration/managing-migrationirregular- migration/criminalization-of-migrant-smuggling (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  57. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 114.
  58. Great Britain, Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002. Available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/41/contents (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  59. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 115.
  60. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 115.
  61. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 1.
  62. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 1.
  63. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 126.
  64. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 125.
  65. Part II Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone, Section 1. General Provisions, Article 2 United Nations, ‘The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective)’. Available at: http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_ historical_perspective.htm (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  66. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 2.
  67. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 8.
  68. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 9.
  69. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 8.
  70. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 8.
  71. (Vrij Nederland 8, 27 February 1999) cited in Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 8.).
  72. Jordan, B. and Düvell, F. Irregular Migration: The Dilemmas of Transnational Mobility, (Cheltenham and Camberley, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 15.
  73. Jordan, B. and Düvell, F. Irregular Migration: The Dilemmas of Transnational Mobility, (Cheltenham and Camberley, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 15; The Guardian, 22nd June 2001.
  74. Jordan, B. and Düvell, F. Irregular Migration: The Dilemmas of Transnational Mobility, (Cheltenham and Camberley, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 113.
  75. Jordan, B. and Düvell, F. Irregular Migration: The Dilemmas of Transnational Mobility, (Cheltenham and Camberley, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 79; Roche, 2000, p. 3.
  76. Jordan, B. and Düvell, F. Irregular Migration: The Dilemmas of Transnational Mobility, (Cheltenham and Camberley, Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2002), p. 171; such as terrorism.
  77. Robinson, B. W. ‘Smuggled Masses: The Need for a Maritime Alien Smuggling Law Enforcement Act’, Army Lawyer, 447 (2010), pp. 20-44, here p. 22; and Washington, G., letter to John Adams, 15 November 1794. Available at: http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ toccer-new2?id=WasFi34.xml&images=images/modeng&data=/ texts/english/modeng/parsed&tag=public&part=13&division=div1 (Accessed 8 November 2011).
  78. Washington, G., letter to John Adams, 15 November 1794. Available at: http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi34. xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/par sed&tag=public&part=13&division=div1 (Accessed 8 November 2011).
  79. Washington, G., letter to John Adams, 15 November 1794. Available at: http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=WasFi34. xml&images=images/modeng&data=/texts/english/modeng/par sed&tag=public&part=13&division=div1 (Accessed 8 November 2011).
  80. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 9.
  81. Roberts, A. ‘Don’t Let Them Drown: Australia must be a good global citizen towards refugees who transit Indonesia’. Inside Indonesia (online), 2 April 2001. Available at: http://www.insideindonesia. org/edition-66-apr-jun-2001/don-t-let-them-drown-3007475 (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  82. Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), p. 17.
  83. Grewcock, M. ‘Irregular Migration, Identity and the State – the Challenge for Criminology, Current Issues in Criminal Justice, 15 (2003-2004), p. 125.; Nadig, A. ‘Human Smuggling, National Security, and Refugee Protection’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 15:1 (2002), pp. 20-23.
  84. International Council on Human Rights Policy, ‘Irregular Migration, Migrant Smuggling and Human Rights: Towards Coherence’ (Geneva, International Council on Human Rights Policy, 2010), p. 2. Available at: http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/56/122_report_en.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  85. Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 2.
  86. An example would be the United States and the Cuban Crisis. See Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 2.
  87. Klepp, S. ‘A Double Bind: Malta and the Rescue of Unwanted Migrants at Sea, a Legal Anthropological Perspective on the Humanitarian Law of the Sea’, International Journal of Refugee Law 23:3 (2011): 538, Introduction.
  88. Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 3.
  89. UNHCR’s Executive committee EXCOM conclusion no. 85 found at (Executive Committee—49th Session) CONCLUSIONS ADOPTED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF REFUGEES - No. 85 (XLIX) - CONCLUSION ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION, no. 85 (d). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/opendocPDFViewer. html?docid=41b041534&query=conclusion (Accessed 9 November 2011).
  90. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 108.
  91. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 108; UNHCR’s Executive committee EXCOM conclusion no. 85 found at (Executive Committee— 49th Session) CONCLUSIONS ADOPTED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF REFUGEES - No. 85 (XLIX) - CONCLUSION ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/ vtx/home/opendocPDFViewer.html?docid=41b041534&query=co nclusion (Accessed 9 November 2011), no. 85 (d).
  92. UNHCR’s Executive committee EXCOM conclusion no. 85 found at (Executive Committee—49th Session) CONCLUSIONS ADOPTED BY THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF REFUGEES - No. 85 (XLIX) - CONCLUSION ON INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/opendocPDFViewer. html?docid=41b041534&query=conclusion (Accessed 9 November 2011), no. 85 (d).
  93. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 108.
  94. UN High Commissioner for Refugees, International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities, June 2011, p. 1. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02.html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  95. Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 5.
  96. The Yugoslavia conflict, Tanzania and the Rwanda civil war. See Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4, (1998), p. 8.
  97. Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 17; United Nations, ‘Charter of the United Nations’, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI. Available at: http://www. unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3930.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  98. United Nations, ‘The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective)’. Available at: http://www.un.org/ Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective. htm (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  99. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Preamble. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  100. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Preamble. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  101. United Nations General Assembly, ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: resolution / adopted by the General Assembly’, 20 January 1994, A/RES/48/189, Article 4 (3). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3b00f2770.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  102. United Nations, ‘The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (A Historical Perspective)’. Available at: http://www.un.org/ Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_historical_perspective. htm (Accessed 7 November 2011), Article 69 and 70 (c).
  103. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Preamble. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  104. Organization of African Unity, ‘Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (OAU Refugee Convention)’, 10 September 1969, 1001 U.N.T.S. 45, Article II (4). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36018. html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  105. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Preamble. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  106. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Preamble. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  107. Enforced by the International Court of Justice. United Nations, ‘Statute of the International Court of Justice’, 18 April 1946, Article 38. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3deb4b9c0. html (Accessed 18 November 2011).
  108. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 109.
  109. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 109.
  110. Marsden, P. ‘UNHCR under duress: the reducing power of UNHCR to influence outcomes for Afghan refugees’, in Palestinian Refugee Repatriation Global Perspectives edited by Michael Dumper (Abingdon and New York, Routledge, 2006), p. 240.
  111. Sperry, P. ‘U.S. still resettling Afghan refugees here’, World- NetWeekly (online), 10 August 2002. Available at: http://www.wnd. com/?pageId=15154#ixzz1dxI5DQZF (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  112. Organisation Organization of African Unity, ‘Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa (OAU Refugee Convention)’, 10 September 1969, 1001 U.N.T.S. 45, Article 5. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b36018. html (Accessed 12 November 2011); and United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, Article 33. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3be01b964. html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  113. Patrick, E. ‘The US Refugee Resettlement Program’, Migration Information Source (online), June 2004. Available at: http://www. migrationinformation.org/feature/display.cfm?ID=229 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  114. Sperry, P. ‘U.S. still resettling Afghan refugees here’, World- NetWeekly (online), 10 August 2002. Available at: http://www.wnd. com/?pageId=15154#ixzz1dxI5DQZF (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  115. Margesson, R. ‘Afghan Refugees: Current Status and Future Prospects’, CRS Report for Congress (Congressional Research Service, 2007), p. 17. Available at: http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/ RL33851.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  116. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 2; [Olson and Zeckhauser 1966; Oneal 1990a, 1990b; Sandler 1992].
  117. Noll, G. Negotiating Asylum: The EU Acquis, Ex traterritorial Protection and the Common Market of Deflection, (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 2000), pp. 270-347; Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government, London School of Economics (March 2003), p. 14.
  118. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 14.
  119. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 14; Noll, G. Negotiating Asylum: The EU Acquis, Ex traterritorial Protection and the Common Market of Deflection, (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 2000).
  120. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 17.
  121. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden-Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 6; see also Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001).
  122. Junker, B. ‘Burden Sharing or Burden Shifting – Asylum and Expansion in the European Union’, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 20 (2005-2006), p. 322.; United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Asylum Levels and Trends in Industrialized Countries, 2004’, (1 March 2005), see 4 and 8, tbl.1.83. Available at http://www. unhcr.ch/statistics (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  123. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Aslyum Levels and Trends in Industralized Countries, 2004: Overview of asylum applications lodged in Europe and non-European industrialized countries in 2004’, (Geneva, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2005), p. 4. Available at: http://www.navend.de/ aktuell/pdf/2005-04-11/Asyl-Bericht.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  124. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 3.
  125. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 6.
  126. Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national, Article 3(3).
  127. Government of Canada and Government of the United States of America, ‘Safe Third Country Agreement’, 5 December 2002. Available at: http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/laws-policy/safethird. asp (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  128. Noll, G. ‘Risky Games? A Theoretical Approach to Burden-Sharing in the Asylum Field’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 16:3 (2003), p. 5.
  129. Convention article that prevents the return of refugees to places where their lives or freedoms could be threatened.
  130. Council Regulation (EC) No 343/2003 of 18 February 2003 establishing the criteria and mechanisms for determining the Member State responsible for examining an asylum application lodged in one of the Member States by a third-country national.
  131. Ibid 127; Junker, B. ‘Burden Sharing or Burden Shifting – Asylum and Expansion in the European Union’, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 20 (2005-2006), pp. 293-???, here pp. 295-296.
  132. European Union: Council of the European Union, ‘Council Resolution of 30 November 1992 on a Harmonized Approach to Questions Concerning Host Third Countries (‘London Resolution’)’, (30 November 1992). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3f86c3094.html (Accessed 17 November 2011).
  133. Brussels’ Commentary on Resolution on a Harmonized Approach to Questions Concerning Host Third Countries, (November 30 and December 1 1992), in ASYLUM AcQuts, supra note 2, at 248 [hereinafter Brussels’ Commentary on Resolution on a Harmonized Approach]. EUROPEAN UNION 32 (Rosemary Byrne, Gregor Noll & Jens Vedsted-Hansen, eds., 2002); Junker, B. ‘Burden Sharing or Burden Shifting – Asylum and Expansion in the European Union’, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 20 (2005-2006), pp. 295-296.
  134. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Article 33.1. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/ refworld/docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  135. Government of Canada and Government of the United States of America, ‘Safe Third Country Agreement’, 5 December 2002. Available at: http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/laws-policy/safethird. asp (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  136. CanadaVisa.com, ‘Safe Third Country Agreement for Asylum Seekers Questioned by Federal Court’. CanadaVisa.com (online), 30 November 2007. Available at: http://www.canadavisa.com/safethird- country-agreement-for-asylum-seekers-questioned-by-federal- court-071130.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  137. Jastram. K. and Achiron, M. ‘Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law’ (Geneva, Inter-Parliamentary Union and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2001), p. 8. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3cd6a8444.html (Accessed 17 November 2011).
  138. Jastram. K. and Achiron, M. ‘Refugee Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law’ (Geneva, Inter-Parliamentary Union and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2001), p. 8. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3cd6a8444.html (Accessed 17 November 2011).
  139. Boswell, C. ‘Burden Sharing in the New Age of Immigration.’ Migration Information Source (online), 30 August 2005. Available at: http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=173 (Accessed 18 November 2011).
  140. Oxford Dictionaries, cooperate. Available at http://oxforddictionaries. com/definition/cooperate (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  141. Ruddock v Vadarlis, FCA 1329, 2001, (known as the Tampa affair).
  142. Refugee Council of Australia, Timeline. Available at http://www.refugeecouncil.org.au/resources/timeline.php (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  143. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, Article 98.
  144. Piotrowicz, R. and Blay, S. ‘International Focus - The case of MV Tampa: state and refugee rights collide at sea’, The Australian Law Journal, 76 (2002), p. 16.
  145. UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Problems Related to the Rescue of Asylum-Seekers at Sea, 8 July 1985, EC/SCP/42. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae68cbc20.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  146. International Council on Human Rights Policy, ‘Irregular Migration, Migrant Smuggling and Human Rights: Towards Coherence’ (Geneva, International Council on Human Rights Policy, 2010), pp. 43-45. Available at: http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/56/122_report_ en.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  147. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02.html (Accessed 7 November 2011), p. 1.
  148. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982, Article 98.
  149. Permanent Mission of the Republic of Nauru to the United Nations, International/Regional Agreements, Conventions and Treaties – Nauru. Available at: http://www.un.int/nauru/treaties.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  150. Taylor, S. ‘The Pacific Solution or Pacific Nightmare: The Difference between Burden Shifting and Responsibility Sharing’, Asia Pacific Law and Policy Journal, 6 (2005), p. 9.
  151. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment’, 10 December 1984, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1465, p. 85. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3a94. html (Accessed 17 November 2011).
  152. United Nations General Assembly, Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 19 December 1966, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 999, p. 171. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3bf0.html (Accessed 17 November 2011).
  153. Taylor, S. ‘The Pacific Solution or Pacific Nightmare: The Difference between Burden Shifting and Responsibility Sharing’, Asia Pacific Law and Policy Journal, 6 (2005), pp. 1-??, here p. 9.
  154. Piotrowicz, R. and Blay, S. ‘International Focus - The case of MV Tampa: state and refugee rights collide at sea’, The Australian Law Journal, 76 (2002), p. 18.
  155. Hennessy-Fiske, M and McDonnell, P. J. ‘Migrant workers fleeing Libya risk lives on smuggling boats’, Los Angeles Times (online), 12 May 2011. Available at: http://articles.latimes.com/2011/may/12/ world/la-fg-libya-migrants-20110512 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  156. Review by Ryan, B. and Mallia, P. ‘Migrant Smuggling by Sea: Combating a Current Threat to Maritime Security through the Creation of a Cooperative Framework’, Journal of Immigration Asylum and Nationality Law, (2011), Publication review.
  157. BBC, ‘Australia and Malaysia sign refugee swap agreement’, BBC News (online), 25 July 2011. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ news/world-asia-pacific-14271460 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  158. Human Rights Watch, ‘Reject Refugee Swap Deal’. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (online), 13 June 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22541,46557650 2,4dfb04fd2,0.html (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  159. Human Rights Watch, ‘Reject Refugee Swap Deal’. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (online), 13 June 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22541,46557650 2,4dfb04fd2,0.html (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  160. Frelick, B., cited in Human Rights Watch, ‘Reject Refugee Swap Deal’. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (online), 13 June 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c 22541,465576502,4dfb04fd2,0.html (Accessed 9 August 2012). Bill Frelick is Refugee Program Director at Human Rights Watch.
  161. High Court of Australia, PLAINTIFF M70/2011 v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP PLAINTIFF M106 OF 2011 BY HIS LITIGATION GUARDIAN, PLAINTIFF M70/2011 v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP [2011] HCA 32, 31 August 2011. Available at: http://www.hcourt.gov.au/ assets/publications/judgment-summaries/2011/hca32-2011-08-31. pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012)
  162. High Court of Australia, PLAINTIFF M70/2011 v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP PLAINTIFF M106 OF 2011 BY HIS LITIGATION GUARDIAN, PLAINTIFF M70/2011 v MINISTER FOR IMMIGRATION AND CITIZENSHIP [2011] HCA 32, 31 August 2011. Available at: http://www.hcourt.gov.au/ assets/publications/judgment-summaries/2011/hca32-2011-08-31. pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  163. CNN Wire Staff, ‘High Court rules Australia cannot send asylum seekers to Malaysia’ CNN World (online), 31 August 2011. Available at: http://articles.cnn.com/2011-08-31/world/australia. malaysia. refugees_1_asylum-seekers-christmas-island-malaysia?_ s=PM:WORLD (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  164. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ Regional Office – Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific, ‘2009 Asylum Levels & Trends in Industrialized Countries’. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees’ Regional Office – Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and the Pacific (online), 23 March 2010. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org.au/unhcr/index. phpoption=com_content&view=article&id=199&catid=46&Item id=92 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  165. Gifford, S., Correa-Velez, I. and McMichael, C. ‘Asylum deal shameful and inhumane’, The National Times (online), May 12 2011. Available at: http://www.theage.com.au/opinion/politics/asylumdeal- shameful-and-inhumane-20110511-1eitw.html (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  166. Morris, T. ‘Australia and asylum: no longer “land of the fair go”?’ Forced Migration Review 8. Available at: http://www.fmreview.org/ FMRpdfs/FMR08/fmr8.12.pdf (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  167. EurActiv, ‘EU mulls immigration burden-sharing’, EurActiv (online), 1 September 2009. Available at: http://www.euractiv.com/ eu-mulls-immigration-burden-shar-news-222524 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  168. International Council on Human Rights Policy, ‘Irregular Migration, Migrant Smuggling and Human Rights: Towards Coherence’ (Geneva, International Council on Human Rights Policy, 2010), p. 16. Available at: http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/56/122_report_ en.pdf (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  169. Gifford, Correa-Velez and McMichael, ‘Asylum deal shameful and inhumane’, The National Times (online), May 12 2011. Available at: http://www.theage.com.au/opinion/politics/asylum-deal-shameful- and-inhumane-20110511-1eitw.html (Accessed 9 august 2012).
  170. Human Rights Watch, ‘Reject Refugee Swap Deal’. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (online), 13 June 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,4565c22541,46557650 2,4dfb04fd2,0.html (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  171. United Nations General Assembly, ‘Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees’, 28 July 1951, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p. 137, here Article 33. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/ refworld/docid/3be01b964.html (Accessed 12 November 2011).
  172. Suhrke, A. ‘Burden-sharing during Refugee Emergencies: The Logic of Collective versus National Action’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 11:4 (1998), p. 1; McNamara 1997:57].
  173. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘UNHCR calls on States to uphold principles of rescue-at-sea and burden sharing’, 8 April 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4da293682.html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  174. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘UNHCR calls on States to uphold principles of rescue-at-sea and burden sharing’, 8 April 2011. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4da293682.html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  175. Cox, S. ‘Pressure grows for common European migration policy’, BBC News (online), 12 May 2011. Available at: http://www.bbc. co.uk/news/world-europe-13359532 (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  176. Whitehead, T. ‘Asylum claims from north Africa rise’, Telegraph (online), 5 May 2011. Available at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/immigration/8493029/Asylum-claims-from-north- Africa-rise.html (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  177. Travis, A. ‘Clegg backs UK decision to opt out of migrant ‘burden sharing’’, Guardian (online), 10 May 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/may/10/nick-clegg-border-libyanrefugees (Accessed 9 August 2012).
  178. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 105.
  179. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Conclusion on International Cooperation and Responsibility Sharing in Mass Influx Situations’, No. 100 (LV) – 2004. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (online), 8 October 2004. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/41751fd82.html (Accessed 7 November 2011). It ‘Recommends that States, UNHCR and other relevant actors, in the emergency response to a mass influx situation, including when developing a comprehensive plan of action, give consideration to the following burden and responsibility-sharing arrangements where necessary and appropriate to the situation heading’ (J).
  180. Official Journal of the European Communities, COUNCIL DECISION of 4 March 1996 on an alert and emergency procedure for burden-sharing with regard to the admission and residence of displaced persons on a temporary basis (96/198/JHA), 13 March 1996. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. do?uri=CELEX:31996D0198:EN:HTML (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  181. Grant, H. and Domokos, H. ‘UK failing to share burden of migration crisis, says southern Europe’, Guardian (online), 7 October 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/07/ uk-migrationcrisis-southern-europe (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  182. Grant, H. and Domokos, H. ‘UK failing to share burden of migration crisis, says southern Europe’, Guardian (online), 7 October 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/07/ uk-migrationcrisis-southern-europe (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  183. Grant, H. and Domokos, H. ‘UK failing to share burden of migration crisis, says southern Europe’, Guardian (online), 7 October 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/oct/07/ uk-migrationcrisis-southern-europe (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  184. See for example Taylor, D. ‘Police investigate alleged assault on Nigerian mother on deportation flight’, Guardian (online), 3 October 2011. Available at: http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2011/oct/03/ police-investigate-nigerian-mother-deportation (accessed 8 August 2012).
  185. UN General Assembly, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), here Article 25. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3712c.html (Accessed 15 November 2011).
  186. UN General Assembly, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III), here Article 5. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3712c.html (Accessed 15 November 2011); and United Nations Association of Minnesota, ‘United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: Description of Committee’ (United Nations Association of Minnesota, 2011), p. 3. Available at: http://www.unamn.org/unamn/studentresources_ files/UNHCR%20Background%20Guide%202011%20MS.pdf (Accerssed 15 November 2011).
  187. Frenzen, N. W. Migrants at Sea (blog). Available at: http://migrantsatsea. wordpress.com/ (Accessed 7 August 2012).
  188. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 14 Noll, G. Negotiating Asylum: The EU Acquis, Ex traterritorial Protection and the Common Market of Deflection, (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 2000).
  189. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 20; (UN 1967: Article 2.2).
  190. Such a system could be similar to the German-Polish border agreement of 1993. This included a provision that, if exceptional circumstances lead to a sudden increase of refugees into Polish territory, Germany would allow certain groups of these persons to enter its territory; Junker, B. ‘Burden Sharing or Burden Shifting – Asylum and Expansion in the European Union’, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 20 (2005-2006). p. 319.
  191. Thielemann, E. R. and Dewan, T. ‘Why States Don’t Defect: Refugee Protection and Implicit Burden- Sharing’, Department of Government and European Institute, London School of Economics, (March 2003), p. 14.
  192. European Union, ‘Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union’, 7 December 2000, Official Journal of the European Communities, 18 December 2000 (2000/C 364/01). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/3ae6b3b70.html (Accessed 15 November 2011), Article 18.
  193. Article 1(3) talks of cooperation in solving humanitarian issues. See United Nations, ‘Charter of the United Nations’, 24 October 1945, 1 UNTS XVI. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/3ae6b3930.html (Accessed 15 November 2011).
  194. UN General Assembly, ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III). Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/ refworld/docid/3ae6b3712c.html (Accessed 15 November 2011).
  195. Junker, B. ‘Burden Sharing or Burden Shifting – Asylum and Expansion in the European Union’, Georgetown Immigration Law Journal, 20 (2005-2006), p. 322.
  196. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 7. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  197. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Refugee Protection and Mixed Migration: the 10-Point Plan in action’, February 2011, p. 95. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ pdfid/4d9430ea2.pdf (Accessed 7 November 2011).
  198. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘International Cooperation to Share Burden and Responsibilities’, June 2011, p. 13. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4e533bc02. html (Accessed 7 November 2011);– and Betts, A. ‘Comprehensive Plans of Action: Insights from CIREFCA and the Indochinese CPA’, UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research, Working Paper No 120, January 2006. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/43seb6a152.html (Accessed 8 November 2011).
  199. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Protection considerations with regard to people fleeing from Libya - UNHCR’s recommendations (as of 29 March 2011) Update No. 1, 29’, March 2011, p. 3. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4d959bf62.html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  200. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Protection considerations with regard to people fleeing from Libya - UNHCR’s recommendations (as of 29 March 2011) Update No. 1, 29’, March 2011, p. 1. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4d959bf62.html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  201. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, ‘Protection considerations with regard to people fleeing from Libya - UNHCR’s recommendations (as of 29 March 2011) Update No. 1, 29’, March 2011, p. 1. Available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/ docid/4d959bf62.html (Accessed 11 November 2011).
  202. Barutciski, M. and Suhrke, A. ‘Lessons From the Kosovo Refugee Crisis: Innovations in Protection and Burden-Sharing’, Journal of Refugee Studies, 14:2 (2001), p. 98.

Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal

Between 2012 and 2017, the number of asylum applications from El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras—countries collectively known as the Northern Triangle—increased by eight hundred percent[1]. The Trump administration has responded by increasing deportations, separating families, and forcing would-be asylum seekers to... MORE»
Advertisement
With over 10 million stateless people globally, statelessness has increasingly become a pressing issue in international law. The production of statelessness occurs across multiple lines including technical loopholes, state... MORE»
In recent decades, Japan and South Korea have become hosts to ethnic return migrants who have returned to their ancestral homeland after once emigrating overseas. Since the 1980s, the Brazilian nikkeijin, or... MORE»
First language attrition (L1) studies are a comparably young and theoretically unspecified field of research in bilingualism. Young, because the first scientifically acclaimed, related... MORE»
Submit to Inquiries Journal, Get a Decision in 10-Days

Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines.

Representing the work of students from hundreds of institutions around the globe, Inquiries Journal's large database of academic articles is completely free. Learn more | Blog | Submit

Follow IJ

Latest in International Affairs

2022, Vol. 14 No. 04
With over 10 million stateless people globally, statelessness has increasingly become a pressing issue in international law. The production of statelessness occurs across multiple lines including technical loopholes, state succession, and discriminatory... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 09
The COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated current global challenges. However, this article argues that this time of crisis can also be a unique opportunity for the existing global economic institutions - G20, WTO, IMF, and World Bank (WB) - to make the... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 02
On January 1st, 1959, a small band of Cuban rebels shocked the world, overthrowing the American-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista. These rebels were especially known for their guerrilla tactics and their leaders, such as Fidel Castro and Ernesto... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 01
Israel has increased the nation’s security presence around the Gaza Strip and in the West Bank. Here, the research project analyzes how transaction costs resulting from Israeli security policy impact the output of manufacturing activities... Read Article »
2020, Vol. 12 No. 09
The necessity of international relief is unending as new crises continue to emerge across the world. International aid plays a crucial role in shaping how affected communities rebuild after a crisis. However, humanitarian aid often results in a... Read Article »
2019, Vol. 11 No. 10
This article aims to present the biopiracy of traditional knowledge from India by the United States, which has occurred directly through the use of patent law and indirectly through economic power and cultural imperialism. Throughout this essay,... Read Article »
2018, Vol. 10 No. 10
After joining the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 2004, Estonians felt secure and in charge of their future. However, following the 2007 Bronze Horseman incident in the Estonian capital of Tallinn which included... Read Article »

What are you looking for?

FROM OUR BLOG

"Should I Go to Graduate School?"
7 Big Differences Between College and Graduate School
What is the Secret to Success?