Mindfulness and Perfectionism

By Anna Handorf
Discussions
2012, Vol. 8 No. 2 | pg. 4/4 |

Discussion

A significant change in STAI-S and PANAS Negative affect scores was found from preto post (Figure 1 & 2). Both state anxiety and negative affect decreased after the mindfulness paradigm practice. However, no significant change in PANAS Positive affect score was found from preto post (Figure 2), meaning that there was neither an increase nor a decrease in positive affect after participating in either mindfulness paradigm. While there were decreases in both state anxiety and negative affect, perfectionism and paradigm were not significant predictors of pre-post change in either variable. This indicates that anxiety and negative affect decrease to similar degrees regardless of participants’ perfectionism level or the paradigm to which the participants were randomly assigned (present moment joy or mindfulness meditation).

While mindfulness meditation focuses solely on Awareness of Breath breathing, the present moment joy focus training also included diaphragmatic breathing as part of the intervention. It was expected that the present moment joy condition would raise positive affect; however, because positive affect did not show a significant pre-post change, it may be concluded that the breathing techniques in both conditions were the main contributors to the decrease in anxiety and negative affect. Furthermore, heightened awareness has been associated with decreases in negative affect while focusing on positive aspects of the self (Cardaciotto et al, 2008). Because mindfulness involves both awareness and acceptance, and acceptance can be difficult to achieve, especially for individuals high in perfectionism, individuals trying to achieve mindfulness for the first time may be more successful at achieving the awareness component than the acceptance component. Thus, individuals in the present moment joy focus training may have experienced the decreases in negative affect while focusing on the positive aspects of life as described by Cardaciotto et al. Even though mindfulness has been associated with increased positive affect (Davidson et al, 2003), if individuals were not completely familiar with the practice of mindfulness, they may not have experienced the increased positive affect that should typically be expected.

Figure 1

Figure 2

One possible explanation for finding no correlation between perfectionism and pre-post change in anxiety and negative affect is that the population used in the current study did not have individually significant perfectionists. However, other studies that have used the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale have average total-perfectionism scores similar to the score in the present study. The average total perfectionism score for participants in the present study is 85.56±16.58 and other studies have average total perfectionism scores of 86.9 and 86.2 (Cox & Enns, 2008); 83.5 (OCD), 83.8 (PDA), and 66.5 (Control) (Frost & Steketee, 1997); 87 (Buhlmann, Etcoff & Wilheim, 2003). Thus, the sample of undergraduate students in the present study’s population has individuals that can be considered high in perfectionism.

Perfectionism may not have played a role in predicting post-scores because this study only examined participant’s first attempt at either present moment joy focus or mindfulness meditation. Perfectionist individuals may have been focusing on understanding and mastering the technique rather than worrying about perfecting it. If a study examined a population of individuals practicing these techniques over a longer period of time, perfectionism may become a better predictor of pre-post change. In all but one study, which specifically examined the effects of short-term meditation training, the reviewed studies that examined the effects of mindfulness meditation on the mind and body used individuals that had practiced mindfulness for at least four weeks (Greeson, 2008). However, most of the studies examined populations that were learning mindfulness techniques for at least 8 weeks. In particular, one study found that more time spent on formal meditation practices yielded increased mindfulness at the end of 8 weeks (Carmody & Baer, 2008). The study that examined short-term meditation effects examined a population of participants that had mindfulness training every day for five days (Tang et al, 2007). As illustrated by these studies, it generally takes weeks of practice in order to achieve the positive effects of a mindfulness perspective. Furthermore, as suggested previously, individuals high in perfectionism may struggle to achieve mindfulness. Thus, it may take individuals high in perfectionism longer than non-perfectionist individuals to fully understand mindfulness and reach the point where they will be fully affected by mindfulness techniques.

Another possible explanation for Perfectionism not showing any affect preto postis that therapies and techniques may not benefit perfectionist individuals. Some individuals high in perfectionism may be able to view the mindfulness techniques as ways to overcome the demands for perfectionism and embrace merely striving for perfectionism, but other individuals high in perfectionism may transfer their energy toward achieving perfect acceptance in the mindfulness realm (Lundh, 2004). Striving for perfect acceptance during mindfulness may override the anticipated changes because the individual is not truly embracing the mindfulness perspective.

In addition to only looking at the pre-post changes on the first day individuals learned the stress reducing technique, another limitation of the present study is that participants were not necessarily high in anxiety. Prior to being invited to participate in the present study, individuals took a screener study that categorized individuals into different categories based on their levels of worry. While mindfulness has been shown to reduce anxiety (Davidson et al, 2003), if individuals were not clinically anxious, these effects may not be as significant. While only high worriers were invited to participate in the present study, they might not have been clinically anxious individuals, which may have affected the state anxiety and the way that the mindfulness techniques reduced their anxiety.


Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Jessica Nasser for allowing me to work with her on this study and providing me the opportunity to share the data collection sample. Additionally, I would like to thank Dr. Amy Przeworski for her guidance and advice throughout the entire process and for commenting on the manuscript.


References

Antony, M.M, Purdon, C.L., Huta, V. & Swinson, R.P. (1998). Dimensions of perfectionism across the anxiety disorders. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 1143 – 1154.

Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A. & Garbin, M.G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twentyfive years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8(1), 77 – 100.

Besser, A., Flett, G.L. & Hewitt, P.L. (2010). Perfectionistic self-presentation and trait perfectionism in social problemsolving ability and depressive symptoms. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(8), 2121 – 2154.

Bishop, S. R. (2002). What do we really know about mindfulness-based stress reduction? Psychosomatic Medicine, 64, 71-84.

Blankstein, K.R. & Lumley, C. H. (2008). Multidimensional perfectionism and ruminative brooding in current dysphoria, anxiety, worry, and anger. J Rat-Emo Cognitive-Behav Ther, 26, 168 – 193.

Block-Lerner, J., Salters-Pedneault, K. & Tull, M.T. (2005). Assessing Mindfulness and experiential acceptance: Attempts to capture inherently elusive phenomena. In S.M. Orsillo & L. Roemer (Eds), Acceptance and Mindfulness-Based Approaches to Anxiety (pp. 71 – 99). Springer US.

Borkovec, T.D. (2002). Life in the future versus life in the present. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 9(1), 76 – 80.

Brown, T.A., Antony, M.M. & Barlow, D.H. (1992). Psychometric properties of the Penn state worry questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30(1), 33 – 37.

Buhlmann, U., Etcoff, N.L., Wilhelm, S. (2008). Facial attractiveness ratings and perfectionism in body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 22, 540 – 547.

Cardaciotto, L., Herbert, J.D., Forman, E.M., et al. (2008). The assessment of present-moment awareness and acceptance: The Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale. Assessment, 15(2), 204 – 223.

Carmody, J. & Baer, R.A. (2008). Relationships between mindfulness practice and levels of mindfulness, medical and psychological symptoms and well-being in the mindfulnessbased stress reduction program. J Behav Med, 31, 23 – 33.

Chang, E.C., Zumberg, K. M., Sanna, L.J. et al. (2007). Relationship between perfectionism and domains of worry in a college student population: considering the role of BIS/BAS motives. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 925 – 936.

Cox, B.J. & Enns, M.W. (2003). Relative stability of dimensions of perfectionism in depression. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 35(2), 124 – 132.

Davidson, R.J., Kabat-Zinn, J., Schumacher, J., et al (2003). Alterations in brain and immune function produced by mindfulness meditation. Psychomatic Medicine, 65, 564 – 570.

Fergus, T.A. & Wu, K.D. (2010). Is worry a thought control strategy relevant to obsessive-compulsive disorder? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24, 269 – 274.

Flett, G.L., Madorsky, D., Hewitt, P.L., Heisel, M.J. (2002). Perfectionism cognitions, rumination, and psychological distress. Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 20(1), 33 – 47.

Flett, G.L., Besser, A., Davis, R.A., & Hewitt, P.L. (2003). Dimensions of perfectionism, unconditional self-acceptance, and depression. Journal of Rational-Emotive Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 21(2), 119 – 137.

Frost, R.O., Marten, P., Lahart, C., & Rosenblate, R. (1990). The dimensions of perfectionism. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 14(5), 449 468.

Frost, R.O., Heimberg, R.G., Holt, C.S, et al. (1993). A comparison of two measures of perfectionoism. Person. Individ. Diff., 14 (1), 119 – 126.

Frost, R.O. Shows, D.L. (1993). The nature and measurement of compulsive indecisiveness. Behave. Res. Ther., 31(7), 683 – 692.

Frost, R.O. & Steketee, G. (1997). Perfectionism in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients. Behav. Res. Ther. 35(4), 291 – 296.

Greeson, J.M. (2008). Mindfulness research. Complementary Health Practice Review, 14(1), 10 – 18.

Jain, S., Shapiro, S.L., Swanick, S., et al. (2007). A randomized control of mindfulness meditation versus relaxation training: Effects on distress, positive states of mind, rumination and distraction. Ann Behav Med, 33(1), 11 – 21.

Jha, A.P., Krompinger, J. & Baime, M.J. (2007). Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neurosciences, 7(2), 109 – 119.

Juster, H.R, Heimberg, R. G., Frost, R.O, et al. (1996). Social phobia and perfectionism. Person. Individ. Diff. 21(3), 403 – 410.

Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. New York, NY.

Lundh, L.G. (2004). Perfectionism and acceptance. Journal of Rational-Emotive Cognitive-Behavior Therapy, 22(4), 255 – 269.

Lundh, L.G. & Ost, L.G. (1996). Recognition bias for critical faces in social phobics. Behav. Res. Ther. 34(10), 787 – 794.

Manzaneque, J.M., Vera, F.M., Ramos, N.S, et al. (2011). Psychobiological modulation in anxious and depressed patients after a mindfulness meditation programme: a pilot study. Stress and Health, 27, 216 – 222.

Perolini, C.M. (2012). Mindfulness and perfectionism as predictors of physical and psychological well-being in college students. ETD Collection for Fordham University.

Purdon, C., M.M. & Swinson, R.P. (1999). Psychometric properties of the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(10), 1271 – 1286.

Ramel, W., Goldin, P.R., Carmona, P.E., & McQuaid, J.R. (2004). The effects of mindfulness meditation on cognitive processes and affect in patients with past depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 28(4), 433 – 455.

Rheaume, J., Freeston, M.H., Dugas, M.J., et al. (1995). Perfectionism, responsibility and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Behav Res. Ther., 33(7), 785 – 794.

Saboonchi, F., Lundh, L.G. & Ost L.G. (1999). Perfectionism and self-consciousness in social phobia and panic disorder with agoraphobia. Behavior Research and Therapy. 37, 799 – 808.

Santanello, A.W. & Garder, F.L. (2006). The role of experiential avoidance in the relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and worry. Coginitive Therapy and Research, 30(3): 319 – 332.

Spielberger, C.D. & Vagg, P.R. (1984). Psychometric properties of the STAI: A reply to Ramanaiah, Franzen, and Schill. Journal of Personality Assessment, 48(1), 95 – 97.

Stober, J. & Joormann, J. (2001). Worry, procrastination, and perfectionism: differentiation amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research. 25(1), 1 – 14.

Tang, Y.Y., Ma, Y., Wang, J., et al. (2007). Short-term mediation training improves attention and self-regulation. PNAS, 104(3), 17152 – 17156.

Watson, D., Clark, L.A. & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063 – 1070.

Suggested Reading from Inquiries Journal

Previous research suggests that risk factors related to immigration in parents are associated with the manifestation of anxiety symptoms and anxiety disorders in children. Acculturative stress and other risk factors related... MORE»
Advertisement
This study aimed to determine if anxiety and depression in individuals are related to deontological ethical decisions, with particular emphasis on the role of reward responsiveness as an underlying principle mediating any... MORE»
This review discusses Mindfulness-Based Art Therapy research to date. A literature review first explores mindfulness and art therapy independently, then investigates the current research on the combination of these two modalities used with clients with mental and emotional issues, physical illnesses, self-acceptance/self-esteem,... MORE»
Many patients experience increased anxiety prior to invasive medical procedures. This anxiety can lead to elevated heart rate and blood pressure as well as increased circulation of the adrenocorticotropic hormones, which... MORE»
Submit to Inquiries Journal, Get a Decision in 10-Days

Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines.

Representing the work of students from hundreds of institutions around the globe, Inquiries Journal's large database of academic articles is completely free. Learn more | Blog | Submit

Follow IJ

Latest in Psychology

2022, Vol. 14 No. 06
Change blindness is the finding that people often fail to notice substantial changes between different views of a visual scene. The current study investigated the effect of mood states on people’s ability to detect changes, by comparing participants... Read Article »
2022, Vol. 14 No. 05
The prevalent school of thought states that suicidal ideation and suicide planning are not associated with living in households with firearms. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) in the years... Read Article »
2022, Vol. 14 No. 04
Marion Godman makes the argument that Pathological Withdrawal Syndrome (PWS) makes the case for psychiatric disorders as a natural kind. Godman argues that we can classify kinds according to their shared ‘grounding’, but we need not... Read Article »
2022, Vol. 14 No. 03
The study investigated stress, coping strategies, and problem-solving skills among college students. A total of 202 university students completed this study. The purpose of this study was to address gaps in the existing literature regarding stress... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 12
Political polarization has been an increasingly salient point of discussion since the 2016 presidential campaign, the election of Donald Trump, and into today. Beyond emphasizing partisan and issue-based divides, scholars have identified emotion... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 04
The question of what it means to be a gendered individual has been left unanswered in light of its variants. The feminist movement proceeding the Industrial Revolution propelled philosophical and literary works, such as Simone de Beauvoir’... Read Article »
2021, Vol. 13 No. 03
Positive affect (PA) is active, enthusiastic, and happy engagement in pleasurable activities and negative affect (NA) includes aversiveness, anger, and fear (Watson et al., 1988). Two studies examined linguistic affect presented as emotion words... Read Article »

What are you looking for?

FROM OUR BLOG

How to Use Regression Analysis Effectively
Finding Balance in Graduate School
Presentation Tips 101 (Video)