http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/keyword/middle-east Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines. en-us Sat, 25 Apr 2026 08:35:16 -0400 Sat, 25 Apr 2026 08:35:16 -0400 http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1953/civil-military-linkages-and-authoritarian-regime-survival-during-the-arab-spring-understanding-different-outcomes-of-the-revolutions By Darya Maliauskaya - Strong linkages between autocrats and the military are often seen as a necessary condition for authoritarian regime survival in the face of uprising. The Arab Spring of 2011 supports this contention: the armed forces in Libya and Syria suppressed the mass protests, while the military in Tunisia and Egypt refused to engage in the counterinsurgency efforts. To better understand these divergent outcomes, the following paper examines the factors that affect civil-military linkages in authoritarian regimes in the Middle East and North Africa. The paper argues that there are three main methods through... Fri, 06 May 2022 09:38 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1953/civil-military-linkages-and-authoritarian-regime-survival-during-the-arab-spring-understanding-different-outcomes-of-the-revolutions http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1715/realism-and-arab-nationalism-an-uneasy-partnership By Marina M. Elgawly - The relationship between realism and nationalism is not clearly articulated in international relations literature. On one hand, realism and nationalism are viewed as contradictory forces, standing against one another as reason to emotion, reality to identity. On the other, nationalism and power politics are inherently intertwined; nationalism often significantly promotes the escalation of war, thus affecting the balance of power. In the context of the modern Middle East, the relationship between realism and nationalism is obfuscated even further as Arab nationalism, a neither particularistic nor... Mon, 18 Dec 2017 10:09 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1715/realism-and-arab-nationalism-an-uneasy-partnership http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1543/is-western-political-science-applicable-to-the-islamic-world-on-the-universality-of-particularism-in-the-middle-east By Samuel W. Singler - Given pervasive representations of its geostrategic and global economic significance, the Middle East constitutes an important area of political and academic study far beyond its geographical boundaries. A key debate underlying such research is whether the region represents a “unique case, quite different from the rest of the world and incomprehensible to outsiders,” or if it is rather open to analysis by an “intellectual system of general application” (Halliday, 1996: 2). By critically evaluating Fred Halliday’s view that the Middle East’s “uniqueness... Thu, 23 Feb 2017 11:12 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1543/is-western-political-science-applicable-to-the-islamic-world-on-the-universality-of-particularism-in-the-middle-east http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1519/explaining-the-muslim-brotherhoods-electoral-success-in-egypt-examining-the-parliamentary-elections-of-2011-and-presidential-election-of-2012 By Jacob C. Potts - The most convincing arguments for the Muslim Brotherhood’s performance must be divided into two sections: their success in parliamentary elections under Mubarak and the elections following the ousting of Mubarak in 2011. In regards to the elections under Mubarak, I argue that the Brotherhood’s focus on the middle class, the actions by the state, and mistakes made by the secular opposition greatly helped them achieve more success than other opposition parties in the Mubarak era. In the elections of 2011 and 2012, the Brotherhood’s focus on economics, their vague platform, wide... Wed, 11 Jan 2017 10:04 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1519/explaining-the-muslim-brotherhoods-electoral-success-in-egypt-examining-the-parliamentary-elections-of-2011-and-presidential-election-of-2012 http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1494/a-colonial-catalyst-reverberations-of-the-sykes-picot-agreement-in-the-rise-of-isis By Sumaia N. Masoom - The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (more commonly known as “ISIS,” but also referred to as the “Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant” or simply “the Islamic State”) has been on a reign of terror in the Middle East for the past three years, and emerged seemingly out of nowhere. However, though its rise appeasr to be quite rapid and is often blamed on Islam or the Middle East itself, in reality, ISIS has its roots much deeper in history, as far back as the beginnings of Western colonialism and the fall of the Ottoman Empire, and the subsequent western affinity... Fri, 11 Nov 2016 11:45 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1494/a-colonial-catalyst-reverberations-of-the-sykes-picot-agreement-in-the-rise-of-isis http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1480/the-muslim-brotherhood-and-egypts-failed-democratic-transition By Jacob C. Potts - In January of 2011, massive protests emerged against Hosni Mubarak, the autocratic leader of Egypt since 1981. After Mubarak stepped down, there was a period of relative freedom for Egyptians, which unfortunately came crashing down roughly two years later, when the military forced the democratically elected president, Muhammad Morsi, to resign. The subsequent regime headed by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi has gone further in its authoritarian practices compared to the former Mubarak regime. After this turn of events, many wonder why this transition to democracy was such a failure. Many have placed blame... Fri, 28 Oct 2016 11:20 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1480/the-muslim-brotherhood-and-egypts-failed-democratic-transition http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1412/womens-motivations-and-roles-in-islamist-organizations By Audrey Cleaver-Bartholomew - It is a common misperception that Islamist organizations are men’s groups. Some, like the Muslim Brotherhood, even involve specifically gendered names, or include other references to “brothers” and “brotherhood.” Beyond exclusive language, Islamist organizations most frequently recruit among young men and feature gender-segregated spaces with all-male leadership. In the West, Islamists are widely regarded as misogynists and little distinction is made between mainstream organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood and violently oppressive organizations like the Taliban... Tue, 31 May 2016 08:04 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1412/womens-motivations-and-roles-in-islamist-organizations http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1415/consequences-of-iraqi-de-baathification By Cherish M. Zinn - Ambassador Paul Bremer of the Coalition Provisional Authority, America's interim government between Saddam's fall and the independent establishment of a new Iraqi government, issued two specific orders during his term which combined to create a power vacuum in the weakened nation. The first order, or the De-Baathification order, eliminated the top four tiers of Saddam's Baath party from current and future positions of civil service. The second disbanded the Iraqi military. Both orders worked to eliminate the institutional memory of all Iraqi institutions, requiring Bremer to establish the nation... Mon, 23 May 2016 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1415/consequences-of-iraqi-de-baathification http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1247/neither-can-live-while-the-other-survives-how-the-representation-of-the-syrian-conflict-neglects-the-citizen By Jessica C. Bridges - The power of heads of state and government officials is indisputable. The many faults of overreliance on the ‘demi-Gods’ of modern world politics could be listed and detailed with great delight, yet an ignorance of ‘real-world’ psychology would be remiss in the context. The major hazard to highlight, and add to the jumble of opinions already distributed, is this: a blind acceptance of a narrative provided by the two leading competitors for the prize of… (peace?) in Syria leads one down a dangerous path that bolsters a bellicose Waltzian ‘balance of power&rsquo... Thu, 22 Oct 2015 10:01 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1247/neither-can-live-while-the-other-survives-how-the-representation-of-the-syrian-conflict-neglects-the-citizen http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1586/do-western-educated-middle-east-leaders-pass-the-democracy-test By Jessica Agostinelli - The purpose of this research is to study this linkage and its implications for democratization efforts in the Arab World. First, a large-N study is used to see the overall impact in this region of Western education of a leader with its Economist Intelligence Unit democracy index. Then, to delve deeper into the issue, two cases will be examined: that of Gaddafi, the Libyan president who was not Western-educated and was highly nationalist, and his Tunisian counterpart Ben Ali, who was Western-educated and whose country is often regarded as the sole success story of the Arab Spring. The discourse... Sun, 31 May 2015 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1586/do-western-educated-middle-east-leaders-pass-the-democracy-test http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/997/examining-the-image-of-the-united-states-in-the-arab-world-and-the-relationship-with-israel-during-the-obama-administration By Alexandra M. Quinn - President Obama did, however, have options that would lead to more immediate upticks in ratings: in a January 2009 Foreign Policy Opinion Briefing, Gallup polling of various North African and Middle Eastern countries (including the Palestinian territories) showed pulling out of Iraq and closing the Guantanamo Bay as the factors most likely to improve those countries’ views of the U.S. On the other hand, the complexities of the United States’ deeply embedded relationship with Israel, as well as its involvement in the Israeli-Palestinian peace process, have continually been a source... Mon, 09 Feb 2015 05:12 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/997/examining-the-image-of-the-united-states-in-the-arab-world-and-the-relationship-with-israel-during-the-obama-administration http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/924/inequality-and-corruption-drivers-of-tunisias-revolution By Dor Srebernik - Many analysts argue that the reason Tunisia fulfilled a democratic transition is that their Islamist Ennahda party is more moderate and inclined toward civilian political order than its Islamist counterparts in other countries, such as Egypt. Ennahda’s willingness to engage in constructive dialogue with secularists in writing a constitution is viewed as the main factor behind the democratic transition. However, this popular approach underemphasizes the main driving forces behind the Tunisian revolution, which are the underlying economic inequalities and structure of the country’s patronage... Mon, 13 Oct 2014 05:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/924/inequality-and-corruption-drivers-of-tunisias-revolution http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/918/the-high-cost-of-living-in-saudi-arabia-growth-and-inflation-in-a-macroeconomic-perspective By Hammad S. Alhamad - Over the past decade Saudi Arabia witnessed high growth rates. In nominal terms, its growth from 2004 to 2013 was 13.4%, but in real terms the growth rate was 6.3%. By definition the difference between nominal and real value is inflation, because the real value of GDP is holding the GDP to a base year, and nominal value is the GDP in current terms. This implies high inflation in the economy because of the big difference between the nominal and real figures for Saudi Arabia. Morovere, almost half of the current growth reflects inflationary factors. In Figure 1 we can see the difference between... Wed, 24 Sep 2014 12:45 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/918/the-high-cost-of-living-in-saudi-arabia-growth-and-inflation-in-a-macroeconomic-perspective http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/906/the-arab-leagues-role-in-the-syrian-civil-war By T M - In March 2011 peaceful protests over the arrest and torture of young Syrians, themselves having drawn slogans refering to the revolutions in Egypt and Tunisia on walls in Syria’s Daraa, led to the killing of six civilians by Syrian police. The protests quickly spread, while the government response grew increasingly cruel. More than three years later, the death toll from Syria’s Civil War has reached over 150,000[2] and 6.5 - 7.6 million have become internally displaced (IDPs) according to the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).[3] Together with... Sun, 13 Jul 2014 04:33 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/906/the-arab-leagues-role-in-the-syrian-civil-war http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/905/the-labor-market-in-saudi-arabia-foreign-workers-unemployment-and-minimum-wage By Hammad S. Alhamad - On the other hand, Saudi nationals have witnessed high levels of unemployment for the past decade. Unemployment peaked in 2011 at 12.4% (Saudi Ministry of Labor, 2012); this was due mainly to structural problems such as competition from lower paid foreign workers. In addition to the problem of the many unskilled Saudi workers who need training in order to be integrated into the labor market, there is a demographic issue: the largest age group is the youth between 20 and 34. The labor market needs to accommodate this large number of workers every year, estimated to be around 300,000 (Fakieh, 2013... Sat, 28 Jun 2014 10:12 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/905/the-labor-market-in-saudi-arabia-foreign-workers-unemployment-and-minimum-wage http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/903/comparing-israels-2009-and-2013-elections-impacts-of-the-spiral-of-silence By T M - Section 2 introduces this theory, which was previously applied to German election campaigning in the 1970s[3] and U.S. presidential competition between Reagan and Carter[4] in 1980, among others. In order to provide the reader with an idea of the complex Israeli political sphere, section 3 introduces the main political actors and parties, and places them in the broader context of Israeli domestic and foreign politics. In section 4, the ‘spiral of silence’ theory is applied to evaluate whether this theory can explain key differences between the 2009 and 2013 Israeli elections, and the... Fri, 13 Jun 2014 09:50 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/903/comparing-israels-2009-and-2013-elections-impacts-of-the-spiral-of-silence http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/753/americas-misguided-war-on-terror-contrasting-samuel-huntingtons-clash-of-civilizations-with-ibn-khalduns-theory-of-social-solidarity By Aminata M. Kone - Islam has been under siege since 2001 and in today's political environment, Muslims are too often associated with terrorism. The heinous attacks of 9/11 were treated by the U.S. not as crimes – which would require criminal prosecution and law enforcement – but as a statement of war against Americans, freedom, democracy, and “the Western way of life” (Hossein-zadeh 2006: 91). From this standpoint, and viewing acts of terrorism as acts of war, a military response seemed appropriate. So far, however, the global war on terror has done little to eradicate terrorism. On the contrary... Mon, 02 Sep 2013 02:31 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/753/americas-misguided-war-on-terror-contrasting-samuel-huntingtons-clash-of-civilizations-with-ibn-khalduns-theory-of-social-solidarity http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1202/liberal-opposition-mounting-pressures-for-reform-in-saudi-arabia-and-kuwait By Sam Kuhn - For all the border-transcending, common cause implications of the popular moniker "the Arab Spring," the sociopolitical upheaval it is meant to allude to seems, upon superficial review of its developing impacts, to have largely missed the Persian Gulf. The protests at Bahrain's Pearl Roundabout garnered minor international media attention relative to the "revolutions" undertaken in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya and Syria, while Kuwait and Saudi Arabia project images of comparative regime stability. In fact, invigorated by the successes and mindful of the tactics of the selfdetermination movement throughout... Mon, 15 Apr 2013 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1202/liberal-opposition-mounting-pressures-for-reform-in-saudi-arabia-and-kuwait http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/694/the-islamic-middle-ages-a-fractured-polity-and-the-flourishing-of-a-cultural-and-scientific-renaissance By Anam Qudrat - Ibn Khaldun highlighted that societies in their natural state exist in the rural countryside, where the struggle of daily life binds kinsmen together (Abdullah, 2012a). Defining this strong familial bond as “asabiyya,” he stated that eventually this bond of zealous loyalty to one’s brethren becomes the driving force behind conquest (Abdullah, 2012a). However, after conquest, as time passes and individuals delve in their material gains and elitist dispositions, the once impeachable bond of asabiyya begins to disintegrate. At this stage, fragmentation of the state is inevitable... Wed, 12 Sep 2012 10:23 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/694/the-islamic-middle-ages-a-fractured-polity-and-the-flourishing-of-a-cultural-and-scientific-renaissance http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/636/book-review-the-shia-revival-how-conflicts-within-islam-will-shape-the-future-by-vali-nasr By Hamad R. Hamad - In his book The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future (2006), Vali Nasr addresses an issue that is gaining increased importance in the contemporary coverage of global Islam: Sunni-Shia relations. Vali Nasr is a widely respected scholar who claims expertise in multiple fields that pertain to Middle Eastern and South Asian politics, particularly Sunni-Shia relations. In the book Nasr examines the issue from, what some would consider to be, a Shia perspective that is often overlooked in favor of Sunni viewpoints. This is made apparent through his disdain of how Islamic history... Mon, 23 Apr 2012 10:59 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/636/book-review-the-shia-revival-how-conflicts-within-islam-will-shape-the-future-by-vali-nasr http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1245/the-awakening-how-revolutionaries-barack-obama-and-ordinary-muslims-are-remaking-the-middle-east By Peter Bergen - One, why were we attacked? When Bin Laden talked to us in March of 1997, we asked him "why are you declaring war on the United States?" There were a lot of things he didn't say. He didn't say, "I'm attacking you because of your freedoms, I'm attacking you because of the first amendment, I'm attacking you because of the Supreme Court, I'm attacking you because of Hollywood, I'm attacking you because of your policies on homosexuals, I'm attacking you because of feminism," he didn't mention any kind of cultural issue at all. It was a foreign policy critique of the United States and basically there... Sun, 15 Apr 2012 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1245/the-awakening-how-revolutionaries-barack-obama-and-ordinary-muslims-are-remaking-the-middle-east http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/603/cedars-to-the-east-a-study-of-modern-lebanon By Constantine J. Petallides - The political history of the Middle East is a complex story wrought with instability, conflict, religious and ethnic cleavages, and artificial imperial and colonial borders. These challenges manifest themselves in varied political systems, norms, and tensions--both domestic and external--in the countries throughout the region. Looking at Lebanon, we see a country that has been, for centuries, a central meeting place of all these conflicts and challenges. From its time under Ottoman rule, Lebanon was beset by religious conflict and infighting among rival religious sects. These violent flare-ups... Fri, 23 Dec 2011 01:19 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/603/cedars-to-the-east-a-study-of-modern-lebanon http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1221/the-evolution-of-revolution-social-media-in-the-modern-middle-east-and-its-policy-implications By Taylor Bossung - Cyber-pessimistic scholars like Evgeny Morozov and Malcolm Gladwell dispute the notion that social media is a “magic pill” for the subjugated in the Middle East. Says Morozov, “The idea that the internet favors the oppressed rather than the oppressor is marred by what I call cyber-utopianism: a naïve belief in the emanicipatory nature of online communication that rests on a stubborn refusal to admit its downside.”2 Still, scholars and politicos like Clay Shirky and Nicholas Kristof suggest otherwise. Condoleezza Rice trumpeted the internet’s utility as a tool... Tue, 01 Nov 2011 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1221/the-evolution-of-revolution-social-media-in-the-modern-middle-east-and-its-policy-implications http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/574/the-african-dimension-of-egyptian-foreign-policy By Tamim K. Kashgari - In the era since the removal of the monarchy in Egypt, a distance seems to have developed between the Egyptian people and the African aspect of their identity. This kind of sentiment has also been corroborated by Egypt’s elite such as Isma’il Pasha or Taha Hussien, both of whom view Egypt’s European heritage to be more important than its African, Islamic and Arab heritage. In more contemporary history, Egypt is associated with being the champion of Arab nationalism. The fact that it has engaged in several conflicts in the name of the Arab cause serves only to further this association... Wed, 14 Sep 2011 08:48 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/574/the-african-dimension-of-egyptian-foreign-policy http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/541/israel-and-palestine-an-eu-model-for-peace By Aaron M. Cassidy - The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a perplexing problem that weighs heavily on the world. For over seventy-five years, blood has been spilt over a piece of land about the size of New Jersey. Numerous attempts have been made to find peace in what is referred to as the Holy Land. Unfortunately, each plan has failed miserably. What is needed now is a fresh examination of the circumstances. Divergent ideas need to be brought to the table for examination and discussion. The overall idea of any peace solution should be to find a way where two different people can co-exist with stability and opportunity... Mon, 13 Jun 2011 09:53 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/541/israel-and-palestine-an-eu-model-for-peace http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/505/understanding-iran-between-central-asia-and-the-gulf-cooperation-council By Tamim K. Kashgari - The Islamic Republic of Iran today sits at the crossroads of Asia between the Middle East and Central Asia. This inherently places it in very close proximity to over half of the world's known energy reserves both in the form of petroleum and natural gas. Thus, an understanding of Iranian intentions and motivations in both these regions are of paramount importance for the entire global community. On a superficial level, these regions share striking similarities. Both the Central Asian States as well as the Arab Gulf States are predominantly comprised of Sunni Muslims. They also share the trait... Tue, 05 Apr 2011 10:35 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/505/understanding-iran-between-central-asia-and-the-gulf-cooperation-council http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/411/transjordan-and-israel-examining-the-foundations-of-a-special-relationship By Tamim K. Kashgari - With the Great Arab Revolt in 1915, the Hashemite family was catapulted to the forefront of Middle Eastern politics and became the literal symbols of Arab unity. Even after their failure to create a single Arab state, and the defeat of Prince Faisal at the hand of the French at Damascus the Hashemites remained the most legitimate political leaders of Arabism to the Arab public. It is with this legacy that Prince Abdullah was handed the state of Transjordan by the British in 1921. How then, could Abdullah the son of Sherif Hussien, the man that began the Arab revolt, have established a cordial... Thu, 17 Mar 2011 08:55 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/411/transjordan-and-israel-examining-the-foundations-of-a-special-relationship http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1109/transnational-waterstreams-in-the-middle-east By Onur Kara - Due to its direct connection with economic power, control of water resources has been a crucial issue for Middle Eastern states throughout their history. Human alteration of water streams can be traced back to around 3000 BC, when the Jawa Dam was constructed in what is now Jordan. However, those constructions were mainly used to control water levels and aid irrigation.3 The recognition of petroleum as a strategic raw material and the beginning of the “mega-dam” age in the early twentieth century has highlighted new aspects of this issue. As its importance has grown, examination of... Tue, 01 Feb 2011 12:00 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1109/transnational-waterstreams-in-the-middle-east http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/252/a-response-to-tanzimat-sultan-abdul-hamid-ii-and-pan-islamism By Alyson M. Chouinard - Under the rule of the Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the late nineteenth century the concept of Pan-Islamism, the concept that all Islamic peoples should unite under the Caliphate, was used as a means of supporting the declining power of the Ottoman ruler. This was done for three distinct reasons that will be argued in this article. The first reason was to counteract the growing power of European powers in the area; the second to undo the secularization that occurred during the Tanzimat period; and the last reason was to give the Sultan political power both in the international arena and domestically... Fri, 14 May 2010 08:05 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/252/a-response-to-tanzimat-sultan-abdul-hamid-ii-and-pan-islamism http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/248/islamic-modernism-responses-to-western-modernization-in-the-middle-east By Yevgeniya Baraz - By the nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, a large part of the Muslim world had begun to lose much of its cultural and political sovereignty to Christian occupiers from Europe. This came as a result of European trade missions during earlier centuries that had propagated Western technology and modernization. There was a large shift of power due to the declining Ottoman Empire, which led to an essential subordination of Muslims because of Western technology and modernization. This subjugation by Christian empires led Muslims of the Middle East to question their own beliefs as well as their... Mon, 10 May 2010 08:05 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/248/islamic-modernism-responses-to-western-modernization-in-the-middle-east