http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/keyword/justice Inquiries Journal provides undergraduate and graduate students around the world a platform for the wide dissemination of academic work over a range of core disciplines. en-us Fri, 29 May 2026 11:15:51 -0400 Fri, 29 May 2026 11:15:51 -0400 http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1962/#itsnotmyperiod-hashtag-activisms-challenge-to-narratives-of-menstrual-stigma By Jessie J. Liu - Perceptions of menstruation as a taboo subject have historically characterized Western and non-Western societies alike and persist today, both perpetuating harmful cultural understandings of women’s abilities and normalizing institutional practices that exacerbate gender disparities. With the advent of viral social media movements or “hashtag activism,” however, challenges to these oppressive, misogynistic mainstream narratives have become increasingly powerful. Centered on menstrual activism and dismantling menstrual stigma, #ItsNotMyPeriod is one such movement. This paper argues... Thu, 22 Sep 2022 11:02 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1962/#itsnotmyperiod-hashtag-activisms-challenge-to-narratives-of-menstrual-stigma http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1936/explaining-the-gender-gap-in-the-criminal-justice-system-how-family-based-gender-roles-shape-perceptions-of-defendants-in-criminal-court By Katharina Geppert - Numerous studies have investigated why women are vastly underrepresented in prisons across the United States. In explaining this “gender gap,” scholars have found that women are treated more leniently than men at various stages of the judicial process. Explanations for women’s lenient treatment are often oversimplified as “sex differences” in criminal behavior and could benefit from further investigation. Through qualitative interviews with federal judges and attorneys, as well as observations of criminal court proceedings, this study examines how the family, as a... Wed, 09 Feb 2022 01:17 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1936/explaining-the-gender-gap-in-the-criminal-justice-system-how-family-based-gender-roles-shape-perceptions-of-defendants-in-criminal-court http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1892/the-eumenides-antigone-and-the-nature-of-objective-justice By Patrick F. Sheils - Justice in The Eumenides is established as an objective entity and it is in The Eumenides that it is solidified as a concept which has causal power over the material world. This metaphysical abstraction seeks to gain purchase through interpersonal relationships and inner-psychological longings. In Antigone, this meta-concept is personified in the material existence of Antigone as a solitary individual. Justice exists as an underlying substructure in both the abstract and the material and can only be instinctually known through its manifestation in human action. This concept is best displayed using... Tue, 30 Mar 2021 09:46 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1892/the-eumenides-antigone-and-the-nature-of-objective-justice http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1865/mental-illness-stigma-in-criminal-justice-an-examination-of-stigma-on-juror-decision-making By Jordan Termeer - Negative stereotypes associated with mental illnesses can lead to discrimination towards those with these illnesses through a process of stigmatization (Link & Phelan, 2001). This current study explored the stigmatization of offenders with mental illnesses through a mock-juror scenario. The influence of the media on this stigma was also examined. Undergraduate students (N = 266) were randomly assigned to one of three depictions of mental illnesses within the media (positive, negative, control) and one of three mental illness conditions for a defendant in a trial (schizophrenia, depression,... Wed, 20 Jan 2021 10:29 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1865/mental-illness-stigma-in-criminal-justice-an-examination-of-stigma-on-juror-decision-making http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1809/the-cycle-of-punishment-in-producing-society By Maureen A.S. Arsenal - These “at-risk populations” tend to be marginalized and/or minority groups. The implication of this “at-risk” judgement, is that the legal system marries moral panic with racialized criminality. Stereotypes and the overrepresentation of Blacks, Hispanics and Indigenous people in our correctional facilities fuel our perception of race(s) that are ‘likely’ to be criminal. The cycling of offenders in and out of the judicial system is how the legal system controls them, for example: the use of criminal history as a tool to justify further monitoring, restrictions... Sat, 03 Oct 2020 07:52 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1809/the-cycle-of-punishment-in-producing-society http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1806/the-effectiveness-of-the-international-criminal-court-challenges-and-pathways-for-prosecuting-human-rights-violations By Sarah J. Goodman - Of the thousands of potential cases that could have been investigated by the International Criminal Court (ICC), only 44 individuals have been indicted, with 45 cases currently before the ICC. Further, only 14 out of the 45 have resulted in a complete proceeding, and only nine were convicted. Scholars in the field have not adequately addressed why cases come before the ICC and how this process may result in a full hearing and verdict. Because of these gaps, empirically-informed recommendations for areas of improvement for the ICC are also largely absent. To begin to fill these gaps, this research... Wed, 30 Sep 2020 12:04 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1806/the-effectiveness-of-the-international-criminal-court-challenges-and-pathways-for-prosecuting-human-rights-violations http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1783/towards-a-theory-of-leniency-for-immigrants By Keerthana Annamaneni - In his compelling account of juvenile justice, “Age of Culpability,” Gideon Yaffe provides a philosophically rigorous justification for the claim that “children should be given a break when they do wrong; they ought to be treated more leniently than adults.”[1] While his claim may be conventional, his reasoning is highly novel. Yaffe rejects the notion that children deserve “a break,” or lenient punishments, because children and adults are intrinsically different.[2] Rather, children deserve leniency because children are denied the vote and cannot author their... Wed, 15 Apr 2020 09:45 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1783/towards-a-theory-of-leniency-for-immigrants http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1767/restoring-justice-an-alternative-to-the-school-to-prison-pipeline By Daisy Morales - The school-to-prison pipeline, a "partnership” between juvenile courts and the school system, "developed through a punitive and harmful framework to the detriment of many vulnerable children and adolescents,” is a phenomenon of the late twentieth century (Mallet, 15). However, juvenile courts and the school system have been historically linked through their focus on controlling young people perceived as troublesome (Mallett, 15). As early as the 1800s and as late as the 1970s, corporal punishment, such as beatings with a ruler, was used by many schools as a normalized method of dealing... Wed, 02 Oct 2019 10:10 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1767/restoring-justice-an-alternative-to-the-school-to-prison-pipeline http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1753/the-criminal-justice-systems-mistreatment-of-transgender-individuals-a-call-for-policy-reform-to-assist-a-marginalized-prisoner-community By Stephenie King - While media coverage and politicians constantly acknowledge the inadequacies of the criminal justice system in managing victims and offenders of color and low socioeconomic status, the discussion about the failure of the criminal justice system towards transgender individuals, victims or offenders, is an issue that is rarely discussed. Transgender individuals have experienced a history of mistreatment and prejudice by traditional society, including judicially, but with contemporary acceptance movements and a rise in openly trans figureheads and celebrities, some may think the history of mistreatment... Thu, 31 Jan 2019 09:45 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1753/the-criminal-justice-systems-mistreatment-of-transgender-individuals-a-call-for-policy-reform-to-assist-a-marginalized-prisoner-community http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1652/john-rawls-primary-goods-approach-to-justice-an-analysis-of-indexing-problems By Rhidoy Rashid - There has been extensive debate over the past few decades regarding the criteria by which we should measure distributive justice. In conceiving a just state of affairs it is imperative that we determine the most appropriate measure of the distributions we are evaluating. Different approaches have their own merits, and range from evaluations of the distribution of happiness, to that of wealth, to that of life prospects. John Rawls and fellow Rawlsians believe that primary goods are most representative of citizens’ fundamental interests. According to Rawls (1999: 54), primary goods are those... Fri, 14 Jul 2017 05:46 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1652/john-rawls-primary-goods-approach-to-justice-an-analysis-of-indexing-problems http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1573/the-american-dream-discourses-of-equality-and-achievability-for-black-americans By Emily Dalgo - What is the meaning of the American Dream for educated black Americans? How do perceptions of the equality and the achievability of the American Dream among educated black Americans correlate with the dominant discourse on the subject? This research project determines the dominant discourses of perceived equality and opportunity on the American Dream for educated black Americans, taking into account the current context and historical context of black Americans. Throughout history, the American Dream has been central to the American value system and has helped to define the essence of American... Tue, 31 May 2016 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1573/the-american-dream-discourses-of-equality-and-achievability-for-black-americans http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1416/transitional-justice-in-ongoing-conflict-colombias-integrative-approach-to-peace-and-justice By Maria A. Van Nievelt - In September 2013, Colombian President Juan Manuel Santos told the United Nations General Assembly that those affected by the Colombian conflict are "entitled to justice, to the truth, to reparation, to non-repetition." Interestingly, Santos echoed these rights—some of the core ideals of transitional justice—in a speech primarily intended to secure endorsement for his government's ongoing peace talks with the FARC-EP,3 Colombia's main insurgent group. The president acknowledged the difficulty of negotiating an end to a complex intrastate problem while simultaneously fulfilling the... Mon, 23 May 2016 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1416/transitional-justice-in-ongoing-conflict-colombias-integrative-approach-to-peace-and-justice http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1401/shame-anger-and-guilt-the-hierarchy-of-emotions-in-restorative-justice By Scot N. DuFour - There has been a shift away from the traditional adversarial criminal justice system and towards a victim centered system. The effects of this shift can be seen in talk of “closure” as a justification for the death penalty, the use of victim impact statements in court hearings, and the implementation of restorative justice programs. Restorative justice programs are centered on providing healing and reconciliation for all concerned parties in a criminal offense rather than seeking justice in a traditional retributive manner. Since restorative justice programs focus on healing, emotion... Thu, 28 Apr 2016 07:35 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1401/shame-anger-and-guilt-the-hierarchy-of-emotions-in-restorative-justice http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1328/sexual-behavior-in-prison-populations-understood-through-the-framework-of-rational-choice-and-exchange-theory By April N. Terry - Rational choice and exchange theories have been used to explain many phenomena in the field of sociological research. Although some literature has used such theories to explain sexual offenses, no research has attempted to make the connection between rational choice and exchange theory as a way of explaining sexual behavior of inmates. The following paper attempts to use such theories to further understand explanations for sexual behavior of inmates. Although standards such as the Prison Rape Elimination Act (PREA) seek to restrict sexual behavior amongst the incarcerated population, while providing... Sat, 16 Jan 2016 10:04 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1328/sexual-behavior-in-prison-populations-understood-through-the-framework-of-rational-choice-and-exchange-theory http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1312/what-was-the-influence-of-cosmopolitan-law-on-the-permanent-court-of-international-justice By Melissa S. McHugh - At the heart of many contemporary international organizations, such as the United Nations, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) and the International Criminal Court (ICC), the theory underpinning cosmopolitan law represents the ideal they strive to achieve in a world plagued with war, conflict, and genocide. Before the UN, the ICJ and the ICC, the League of Nations established the Permanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)—not as a utopian realization of Immanuel Kant’s perpetual peace, but as a tool for European nations to seek rational resolutions to disputes arising from... Fri, 20 Nov 2015 10:43 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1312/what-was-the-influence-of-cosmopolitan-law-on-the-permanent-court-of-international-justice http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1216/transitional-justice-and-religion-an-examination-of-faith-based-actors-in-kenyan-civil-society By Maddie Powell - First, the paper examines civil society’s response to post-election violence that occured in 2007-2008, with a key focus on the response of faith-based actors. In this instance, the International Criminal Court indicted Kenyatta, Ruto, and others for their involvement in the violence. The formation of a Truth, Justice, and Reconciliation Commission also followed the incident.  Second, the paper turns to the very recent case of the Kenyan government offering amnesty to Shabaab militants after the brutal Garissa University College attack in April 2015. This section of the paper focuses... Wed, 14 Oct 2015 11:03 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1216/transitional-justice-and-religion-an-examination-of-faith-based-actors-in-kenyan-civil-society http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1055/from-retribution-to-restoration-in-sierra-leone-fambul-toks-drive-to-heal-post-civil-communities By Pratik Raghu - Between 1991 and 2002, the small West African coastal state of Sierra Leone was rocked by a brutal civil war, which killed, injured, displaced, and traumatized millions of men, women, and children. In the aftermath of the conflict, local political elites combined with intergovernmental and nongovernmental organizations to establish the international-domestic Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC); they hoped that these hybrid bodies would respectively bring the war’s chief perpetrators to justice and address victims’ needs while creating... Tue, 14 Jul 2015 04:28 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1055/from-retribution-to-restoration-in-sierra-leone-fambul-toks-drive-to-heal-post-civil-communities http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1180/colombias-opportunity-for-transitional-justice By Ana Luquerna - This paper will focus on the extreme tension between the Colombian government, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) and the Patriotic Union (UP) political party. Even though Colombia has been labeled a democratic country since the 1970s, its failure to successfully participate in transitional justice has inhibited the growth of a full democracy. In addition to explaining the tensions between the FARC, UP, and the Colombian government, this paper will explain how elements of transitional justice, such as the integration/demobilization of armed groups back into society and... Wed, 15 Apr 2015 12:00 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1180/colombias-opportunity-for-transitional-justice http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1027/statutory-rape-and-teen-sexting-laws-the-consequences-of-poorly-crafted-legislation By Sarah L. Rankin - Child pornography laws are primarily drawn from the "Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation Act" of 1977. This act targets persons who “transport, ship, receive, distribute, or reproduce child pornography” but precludes minors because they are the subjects of the pornography (Cornwell, 2013). Technology has certainly changed in the 40 years since the penning of this legislation. Many adolescents now have access to smartphones that, among other things, enable them to privately take and send sexually suggestive pictures and messages, or ‘sexts.’ Technically, this... Mon, 13 Apr 2015 04:32 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1027/statutory-rape-and-teen-sexting-laws-the-consequences-of-poorly-crafted-legislation http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/994/how-eric-holders-role-as-attorney-general-impacted-the-obama-presidency By Federika A. Cariati - Attorney General Eric H. Holder Jr.’s recent resignation is not the first controversial issue to arise out of his nearly six-year career in the White House. Since his nomination process began, Holder’s career as Attorney General has been as groundbreaking as it has been inconsistent. His fierce defense of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act as well as his efforts to broaden civil rights have molded Holder’s legacy in the American Justice system as well as his impact on the shape of Obama’s presidency. While there is no doubt that Holder left a mark on the Obama... Sun, 08 Feb 2015 10:15 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/994/how-eric-holders-role-as-attorney-general-impacted-the-obama-presidency http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/936/the-evolution-of-human-rights-law-in-europe-comparing-the-european-court-of-human-rights-and-the-ecj-icj-and-icc By Donna V. Artusy - Human rights protection in Europe evolved significantly over the last century, culminating in the creation of the European Court of Human Rights. Unfortunately, the decisions made by the European Court of Human Rights are not binding and do not serve as precedent for future cases. The court has the potential to hold significantly greater influence over human rights protection, but its institutional structure and guiding doctrine (the European Convention on Human Rights) does not allow for this. Although the Court maintains jurisdiction over a smaller number of states, it has a more significant... Mon, 03 Nov 2014 03:49 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/936/the-evolution-of-human-rights-law-in-europe-comparing-the-european-court-of-human-rights-and-the-ecj-icj-and-icc http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/911/humanity-and-its-place-in-nature-rethinking-the-reality-of-wilderness By Thomas R. Smith - The Western concept of wilderness encompasses pristine, untrammeled land viewed as “the last remaining place where civilization…has not fully infected the earth” (Cronon, 1995, p. 69). Indeed, many Americans possess this dualistic vision that separates nature and humanity, thus leading to the creation of preservation areas that restrict human habitation. Of course, the protection of what is perceived as “pristine” and “virgin” land completely ignores the fact that humans inhabited these lands for millennia without permanently damaging them. Instead, these... Sun, 07 Sep 2014 10:42 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/911/humanity-and-its-place-in-nature-rethinking-the-reality-of-wilderness http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/896/the-visual-rhetoric-of-lady-justice-understanding-jurisprudence-through-metonymic-tokens By Bradly A. Knox - The genealogy of Justitia dates back to Greek mythology. Themis, who was wife, aunt, and counselor to Zeus, was considered Goddess over divine law and order. Following from the archaic legends, the rise of the Church amended Justitia “not as a goddess but as a personification of ancient virtues” (Resnik & Curtis, 1987, p. 1729). In contemporary times, Justitia has adorned courtrooms and the public forum as a trope to the Court of Law. Justitia has been commonly associated with jurisprudence. She is comprised of microelements, for instance the icon is usually depicted with a blindfold... Fri, 09 May 2014 08:28 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/896/the-visual-rhetoric-of-lady-justice-understanding-jurisprudence-through-metonymic-tokens http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/883/the-sovereignty-of-the-european-court-of-justice-and-the-eus-supranational-legal-system By Hakan Kolcak - The European legal system has been considered as either an intergovernmental legal system or a supranational one. The intergovernmental order, on the one hand, emphasises that the European Court of Justice should consider the preferences of member-state governments in its decision-making processes. The supranational order, on the other hand, underscores that European law generates its own legal system, therefore, the Court should rule its case law in pursuant of the primary and secondary resources of European law. In this article, it is argued that the European legal system may be recognised as... Fri, 04 Apr 2014 11:46 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/883/the-sovereignty-of-the-european-court-of-justice-and-the-eus-supranational-legal-system http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/874/theories-of-multicultural-toleration-an-examination-of-justice-as-fairness-and-political-theology By Matthew B. Wilks - The place of multiculturalism in a liberal democracy continues to be a contentious question and one with which the liberal democratic state must constantly grapple. Two differing conceptions of the way the state should conceive of multicultural toleration can be seen in Justice as Fairness by John Rawls and Political Theology by Carl Schmitt. In Justice as Fairness, Rawls details his theory of justice as fairness, a model for a “well-ordered society” and conceives of reasonable pluralism as being a permanent condition of democratic society. Rawls deals with the issue of multicultural... Sun, 23 Mar 2014 02:28 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/874/theories-of-multicultural-toleration-an-examination-of-justice-as-fairness-and-political-theology http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1616/tested-and-found-wanting-a-quantitative-analysis-of-legal-integration-in-the-member-states-of-the-2004-european-union-enlargement By Leigh Maltby - The subject of European legal integration entered the spotlight of interdisciplinary studies in the mid-1990s and has continued to maintain, if not increase, its prominence in scholarly literature (Mattli and Slaughter, 1998, 177-178). As Egan, Nugent and Paterson indicate, "Not only have different disciplines cast light on different aspects of the integration process and of the EU but so has there been a mushrooming of varying approaches to EU studies within disciplines" (Egan, Nugent and Paterson, 2010, 1-13). Scholars using a variety methods conclude that European legal integration would not... Mon, 31 Dec 2012 12:00 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/1616/tested-and-found-wanting-a-quantitative-analysis-of-legal-integration-in-the-member-states-of-the-2004-european-union-enlargement http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/712/justice-and-inequality-in-the-world-trading-system-a-critical-assesment By Dominykas Broga - It has been argued that the global trading system is supposed to promote global efficiency and growth, but a rising chorus of voices is asserting that the global economy operates in a way that is fundamentally unfair and seems to be ‘rigged in favor of the rich’[2]. Those voices require more equality in the World Trade Organization (WTO). Yet, neo-liberals argue that unequal outcomes in the world economy are acceptable on the assumption that equality of opportunity still exists.[3] Others defend the world trading system on the grounds that existing inequalities are fair, because they... Thu, 01 Nov 2012 10:26 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/712/justice-and-inequality-in-the-world-trading-system-a-critical-assesment http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/707/non-traditional-therapies-in-forensic-populations-benefits-of-human-animal-interaction-art-therapy-and-meditation-based-interventions By A. M. Foerschner - Unique challenges are present in therapy when working with mentally ill offenders in a correctional setting. In order to encourage effective therapeutic change, hurdles such as strong resistance to therapy by inmates, complex etiologies of illness, and limited resources must be overcome in addition the usual challenges of treating individuals who have psychological issues. The present paper explores how non-traditional therapies, including human-animal interaction, art therapy, and meditation-based interventions have shown great effectiveness in treating mental illnesses common in the forensic... Tue, 16 Oct 2012 10:07 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/707/non-traditional-therapies-in-forensic-populations-benefits-of-human-animal-interaction-art-therapy-and-meditation-based-interventions http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/706/obtaining-justice-for-victims-of-strangulation-in-domestic-violence-evidence-based-prosecution-and-strangulation-specific-training By Brigitte P. Volochinsky - Strangulation accounts for 10-percent of violent deaths in the United States, with six female victims to every male victim. A common form of abuse in domestic violence, strangulation may result in many harmful health effects and it often indicates either an ongoing pattern of abuse or it foreshadows escalating violence. Yet, strangulation is often minimized by the criminal justice system, including law enforcement officials, emergency room medical personnel, and prosecutors, who equate strangulation with a slap on the face. The phenomenon of minimizing a violent and life-threatening act occurs... Wed, 10 Oct 2012 10:53 EDT http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/706/obtaining-justice-for-victims-of-strangulation-in-domestic-violence-evidence-based-prosecution-and-strangulation-specific-training http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/593/debating-genetics-as-a-predictor-of-criminal-offending-and-sentencing By Jeremy W. Wilson - Recent studies in behavioral genetics indicate that some violent criminals are genetically predisposed to violent behavior. One study has found that a mutation in the structural gene for monoamine oxidase A gives rise to an acute build-up of neurotransmitters associated with the body’s ‘fight or flight’ responses to stressful situations (Evansburg 2001). Many criminologists do not totally disregard genetic characteristics as a means of determining who will commit crimes but they do believe that “a genetic disorder may predispose an individual to aggressive behavior [but... Mon, 14 Nov 2011 10:05 EST http://www.inquiriesjournal.com/articles/593/debating-genetics-as-a-predictor-of-criminal-offending-and-sentencing